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This paper presents a thorough examination of methane capture from Polish coal mines, contextualized within the framework of the European Union's (EU) climate policy objectives. Through a strategic analysis encompassing the interior of coal mines, the surrounding environment, and the macro environment, this study elucidates the complex dynamics involved in methane emissions and capture initiatives. The key findings include a declining trend in absolute methane emissions since 2008, despite fluctuations in coal extraction volumes, and a relatively stable level of methane capture exceeding 300 million m3/year since 2014. The analysis underscores the critical role of government support, both in terms of financial incentives and streamlined regulatory processes, to facilitate the integration of methane capture technologies into coal mining operations. Collaboration through partnerships and stakeholder engagement emerges as essential for overcoming resource competition and ensuring the long-term success of methane capture projects. This paper also highlights the economic and environmental opportunities presented by methane reserves, emphasizing the importance of investment in efficient extraction technologies. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, particularly regarding the low efficiency of current de-methanation technologies. Recommendations for modernization and technological innovation are proposed to enhance methane capture efficiency and utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU has set the ambitious target of raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 32% by 2030, with a target of climate neutrality by 2050. The aim of this paper is to assess the role of biomass usage in the context of these targets. The paper identifies the progress made between 2013 and 2022 by focusing on a selection of EU countries. The largest bioenergy increments of 130, 77, and 60 PJ were reported for Poland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. This study evaluates the crucial role of co-generation and heat in EU regions, with biomass usage between 55 and 80% of the combined heat and power (CHP) energy in Nordic countries. The future perspectives for bioenergy based on EU policies, biomass resources, and technical issues were addressed. The EU possesses around 9% of the global biomass supply, ensuring a certain level of biomass resource dependence. Thus, the biomass usage demand in energy production, non-energy sectors, and transport is expected to rise, leading to increments of 13–76% on biomass imports. It appears that bioenergy development is mostly limited by economic issues and uneven support for bioenergy in different EU countries as well as environmental issues. The study shows a promising and sustainable potential of bioenergy in the EU as a renewable energy source while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and the economy. By 2050, liquid biofuels are likely to be increasingly used in the transport sector. Non-energy sector usage of biomass is still in an early stage of development, except for the pulp and paper industry, and significant use of biomass in non-energy sectors seems unlikely in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union, increasing attention is already being paid not only to the development of renewable energy sources, but also to the establishment of solutions to achieve local energy self-sufficiency while increasing the role of citizens in managing the energy they generate. This approach is expected both to have a positive impact on the environment and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and to enhance energy security—both in economic and civic terms by, i.a., combating energy poverty. The development of local energy communities promoted in the EU is supported i.a. by energy cooperatives. These contribute to the efficient harnessing of renewable energy potential in rural and urban-rural areas, and have been developing in Poland for several years now. In their previous studies, the authors of this research paper attempted to verify the generation (number, type and capacity of installed sources) and consumption (energy demand) configurations in which an energy cooperative would be a viable solution for prosumers who might establish it. However, over the past few years, the conditions for prosumers and the method of their accounting with the electricity seller have changed radically in Poland (shift from net metering to net billing). This situation has opened up space for further research and encouraged the authors to revisit the problem of analyzing the viability of establishing energy cooperatives in relation to the rules of operation of individual prosumers. This research was carried out for three scenarios, and the horizon of the analyses conducted and described extends to 2045. The comparative analysis included energy consumers without their own generation sources, prosumers with a photovoltaic generation installation covered by the net billing model, as well as a scenario involving prosumers' cooperation within an energy cooperative, which by law is settled in the net metering model. Conclusions from the research and simulations made it possible to confirm the claim that, despite changes in the rules of prosumer billing, developing energy independence in the energy community formula results in a significant reduction in the cost of purchasing electricity (even several times lower purchase costs in the timeframe analyzed) and can lead to a reduction in the payback time of investments in generation sources even by a factor of two. The results presented in this research paper open up space for further research. The outcomes allow us to assume that energy cooperatives—in the organizational and institutional model in Poland—are a good tool for reducing the phenomenon of energy poverty on a local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources (RESs) offer key transformative potential from a societal point of view due to their modularity and ability to generate energy at the local level, allowing for the development of grassroots democratic and participatory initiatives. The paper aims to share insights into the processes of creating RES cooperatives in Poland. One of the first cooperatives to be established in the Upper Silesian region in Poland was the energy cooperative (EC) "Our Energy". This study presents an in-depth empirical analysis of a community-based renewable energy cooperative. The study employed a case study methodology, including a SWOT analysis framework, to describe the research subject and identify its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Key findings indicate that members benefit from stable energy prices and full recovery of the energy produced, and the cooperative is at the forefront of energy-sharing practices that minimize costs through direct transactions with the local municipality. The strategic goals of the EC focus on expanding membership, increasing the number of photovoltaic installations, implementing energy balancing, combating energy poverty, and reducing emissions. Challenges such as financial constraints and a lack of real-time monitoring of energy distribution are acknowledged, and carbon footprint reduction innovations and stakeholder engagement are highlighted as forward-looking approaches. The study highlights the role of cooperatives as a model for community-led sustainable energy initiatives. However, the study acknowledges the limitations of its small sample size, suggesting the need for broader research to understand the impact of collaborative energy on decarbonization. Future research directions are proposed, focusing on the long-term sustainability and socioeconomic impacts of energy cooperatives. This study contributes to the scholarly discourse on renewable energy cooperatives by offering insight into their potential to bridge the gap between energy producers and consumers and support sustainable community development. The main novelty of this paper lies in its detailed examination of a specific renewable energy cooperative, incorporating SWOT analysis, stakeholder perspectives, quantitative assessments, and a forward-thinking approach. This multifaceted analysis contributes to the existing literature on renewable energy initiatives, providing a valuable reference for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the financial determinants of the efforts of local government units (LGUs) to invest in the area of energy transition (ET). The main objective is to verify the links between the scale, directions, and funding sources of LGUs' investments in ET and their budgetary situation described by the level of income independence, budget result, and debt level. The general research hypothesis assumes that the ET investment activity of LGUs is associated with their financial situation. The analysis covers the period 2019–2022 and uses data from the questionnaire-based survey conducted in 2023 among 181 LGUs in the Podkarpackie region in southern Poland. Non-parametric tests were employed to verify the association between the LGUs' ET investment activity and their financial situation: the Chi2 test, the Mann–Whitney U test, the Kruskal–Wallis test, and the Kendall's Tau correlation. Financial aspects were shown to influence the scale of municipal ET investments, as well as the type of projects implemented. Among the analysed financial indicators, the debt level was the most important constraint for LGUs to make their own ET investments. The debt level not only determined the scale of municipal ET investment, but also influenced decisions on the type of investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of wind energy has been observed for many years. Both construction firms and the scientific world are analyzing new design solutions, atmospheric conditions and the technical performance achieved. The main goal of this research is to evaluate the requirements that have to be met to design wind power stations that would be an optimal fit for the climatic conditions in Poland. This study combines the results of empirical studies on wind velocity distributions with the physical fundamentals of wind power station design. This paper presents modelling of the relationships between wind velocity distributions observed in Poland and technical requirements for wind power stations design. The wind velocities distributions for various locations in Poland are determined and expressed in Weibull distribution parameters. Theoretical computations concerning the dependence of wind power stations as function of wind speed and air's physical properties are presented. Conclusions important for the design of power stations fitted to the atmospheric conditions in Poland are given. LabVIEW 2021 was used for computer modeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the LCOE for photovoltaics has decreased several times, it is once again gaining popularity. The intensification of the development of PV installations is contributing to the duck curve phenomenon in an increasing number of countries and, consequently, affecting current electricity prices. Decisions on new investments in large-scale PV sources are driven by potential economic and environmental effects, and these, in turn, are subject to locational considerations, both as to the country and its region. In calculating the economic impact of locating a 1 MWp PV farm, it was assumed that the electricity generated by the farm would be fed into the national grid, and that the life of the PV farm would be 20 years. Poland was considered as an example country for the placement of a photovoltaic farm. The authors of this paper proposed that the main verification parameter is the availability of connection capacities to feed the produced electricity into the country's electricity grid. The methodology proposed by the authors for the selection of the location of a PV farm consists of four steps: step (i) identification and selection of the administrative division of a given country; step (ii) verification of available connection capacities; step (iii) (two stages) verification of other factors related to the location of the PV farm (e.g., information on land availability and the distance of the land from the substation), and analysis of productivity at each potential location and electricity prices achieved on the power exchange; step (iv) economic analysis of the investment—analyses of PV farm energy productivity in monetary terms on an annual basis, cost analysis (CAPEX, OPEX) and evaluation of economic efficiency (DPP, NPV, IRR). The greatest impact on the economic efficiency of a PV project is shown by the value of land (as part of CAPEX), which is specific to a given location, and revenues from energy sales, which are pretty similar for all locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synthesis of methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide creates an energy resource that is suitable for long-term storage. Once this process is powered by renewable electricity, it produces a clean fuel for producing electricity and heat and supports large-scale renewable energy deployment, energy transition and climate change mitigation. This paper proposes a pragmatic approach to assessing the economic potential of synthetic methane-based power. Today, natural gas plays an important role in the Baltic region due to the existing infrastructure, which includes a transmission and distribution pipeline network, gas power plants and a large underground storage reservoir. Replacing natural gas with synthetic methane would fulfil carbon emission reduction ambitions. In this paper, we simulate electricity producers' actions at market conditions and consider the generation portfolio in the Baltics and the interconnections with Scandinavia and Poland operating in the NORDPOOL electricity market. As a result of these calculations, we obtain the volume of the synthetic gas, the production costs, the volume of gas storage, the installed capacity of the gas power plant, and the investments required to ensure energy transition and system adequacy. These results are essential for the informed decisions made by policymakers, investors and system operators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing companies strive to minimize costs, maximize efficiency and improve production quality, which is crucial for market competitiveness. As companies grow and technologies evolve, increasingly complex challenges arise in effectively managing and improving production processes. One of the tools that helps companies improve their processes is value-stream mapping (VSM). The article focuses on the use of VSM in the production process of hand tools used in the construction industry. The paper presents selected aspects of the optimization of the production process using the mapping concept. The research identified and characterized the most important processes occurring in the production of hand tools used in construction. Then, basic data on the value stream was collected and the need for improvements and actions aimed at optimizing the value stream was indicated. Financial results, key performance indicators (KPIs), machine operation and reliability, energy consumption in the production process and overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) before and after improvements were calculated. The analysis carried out allowed for the optimization of the production process in terms of economy and energy consumption. As a result of the improvements, the productivity of injection-molding workers increased by 9.4% and the overall equipment efficiency by 18%. The machine availability rate increased from 70.3% to 85.2%. After implementing the improvements, the company is able to save approximately 295,488 kWh annually, i.e., approximately EUR 53,253, while 1 kWh currently costs producers in Poland EUR 0.18. The conclusions and results described in the paper constitute a solid basis for further development of an improvement project for the selected company. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in the share of renewable energy sources (RES) leads to a growing need for sources or systems/actions to stabilize the national energy grid. Such stabilizing actions include market tools, such as prices and demand-side response (DSR) tools, as well as flexible energy sources (e.g., gas). In addition, energy storage, where pumped storage hydroelectricity (PSH) accounts for 90% of global storage capacity, plays an important role. Therefore, the authors presented a detailed analysis of PSH in the context of the dynamic growth of installed capacity in renewable energy sources. They analyzed the economic viability of this type of power plant, with a particular emphasis on operational costs, energy production, and revenue. The Młoty case study and market data, including historical data on various PSH, were presented and analyzed. This study uses copulas, simulation, and statistical analysis. The authors proved that market prices and arbitrage actions alone are not sufficient to achieve profitability of the investment; however, additional benefits, such as fees for available power, enable the achievement of economic profitability. The reason for this is the fact that one of the main goals of PSH is to serve as a power reserve. In addition, this paper presents the analysis of the utilization of existing PSH in the form of full pumping and energy generation cycles (charging and discharging storage). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, one of the main goals is to make municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) energy-neutral. However, advanced wastewater treatments and sewage sludge processing are still classified as highly energy-intensive. In this study, the energy self-sufficiency potential assessment of the WWTP located in Krosno (Poland) was evaluated. Moreover, the possible paths for improving the energy balance of the analyzed facility are presented in this paper. The performed evaluation indicated that in 2016–2019, the energy consumption at WWTP Krosno varied from 0.25 to 0.71 kWh/m3 of wastewater (average 0.51 kWh/m3), and the highest energy utilization values in each year were recorded around the summer season. An analysis of the data showed that as the pollutant load flowing into the WWTP increased, its energy utilization decreased. Such results indicate that the treatment cost per cubic meter decreases as the load increases due to the capital cost being the same. The estimated self-sufficiency of the facility in the years analyzed was 50.5%. The average energy recovery from 1 m3 of wastewater was 0.27 kWh/m3, and the average energy recovery from 1 m3 of biogas was 1.54 kWh/m3. Since the energy balance of this wastewater treatment plant, determined primarily by the continuously increasing cost of energy purchases, has to be improved, two courses of action were identified that will allow for increasing self-sufficiency. The co-digestion strategy was indicated as the easiest solution to implement, given the on-going anaerobic stabilization of sewage sludge at this WWTP. Moreover, the possible co-substrates that can be obtained from local suppliers were indicated. The second course of action, which requires a thorough economic analysis, is sludge pre-treatment, which might improve sewage sludge properties, resulting in a more favorable biogas yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is highly likely, as per a European Commission report, to fall short of meeting the 2025 targets related to the preparation for re-use and recycling of municipal waste and packaging waste. The risk of not meeting the municipal waste recycling targets stands at 27%, while for packaging waste, it is estimated at 30%. Recycling rates play a pivotal role in gauging the efficiency of waste management systems, as well as in monitoring progress toward a circular economy. Taking into account the considerable likelihood of Poland not achieving the recycling targets, the authors of the paper found it imperative to identify the risk factors associated with Poland's failure to meet the European Commission's recycling and landfill targets within the waste-to-energy context. Additionally, they sought to evaluate the potential for the development of the waste-to-energy concept in Poland. The research objectives were fulfilled through the literature review method. By employing the classification of factors outlined in a SWOT analysis, the authors highlighted which of the identified risk factors could or should be considered strengths or weaknesses, opportunities or threats to the Polish recycling process. Mapping out future courses of action will enable decision-makers in Poland to address the weaknesses in recycling, capitalize on opportunities arising from the socio-economic situation in Poland, and formulate plans to mitigate the identified threats. Undertaking such initiatives has the potential to enhance recycling rates in Poland and facilitate the broader application of waste-to-energy practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is actively exploring the application of nuclear power as a substitute for its present reliance on fossil fuels for the generation of heat and electricity. This change reflects a calculated attempt to reduce carbon emissions, diversify the nation's energy sources, and enhance the sustainability of its energy infrastructure. However, the implementation of nuclear technology faces many challenges, such as radiation exposure, the production of radioactive waste, the off-site effects of nuclear accidents, and high capital costs. Addressing such nuclear-safety-related issues is crucial for nuclear technology's successful deployment. An extended analysis of the "coal-to-nuclear" process in terms of its safety has to be performed. Therefore, this review paper covers multidisciplinary studies related to the rollout of nuclear energy in Poland. The first stage of this study was the identification of the key areas of analysis, which included (i) formal requirements and recommendations imposed by international and national organizations on the process of designing and operating nuclear power systems; (ii) potential nuclear hazards for the personnel working at a nuclear reactor unit and the local population; (iii) the applied solutions of the security systems of a reactor itself, the steam turbine cycle, and the auxiliary infrastructure; and (iv) the management of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste. This methodology, developed based on a review of the literature and international standards, was tested for the selected country—Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicles are increasingly appearing on Polish roads due to a number of technical, legal and marketing conditions. However, electromobility is developing primarily in urban areas, mainly due to the unevenly developed infrastructure for charging vehicle batteries and the power grid. Therefore, solutions should be created that use the existing power infrastructure, including the use of railway power infrastructure (RPI). The railway power network covers a significant part of the country, including forest areas, and, above all, it very often intersects with road infrastructure or runs along roads. This paper raises issues related to the possibility of using RPI to charge the batteries of electric vehicles. After characterizing the technical, operational and legal requirements related to these technical systems, a concept of an electric vehicle charging system using RPI was developed, along with a demonstration of the possibility of its implementation, which was simulated using mathematical models developed by the authors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green transition is a challenge for the Polish economy and energy sector. In this paper, the expert method of analysis was applied and findings revealed that the challenges and prerequisites for an effective transformation of the power sector mainly include technical, technological and organizational issues of energy production and use. The provision of electricity at competitive prices and with a low carbon footprint, for individual consumers and industry, is a prerequisite for maintaining the well-being of the population and ensuring the competitiveness of domestically produced goods. The ambitious climate policy goals of the European Union require immediate action and call for radical changes in the Polish energy sector; in the coming years, it must drastically reduce the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels and replace it with so-called green energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this article was to highlight the need to modify Poland's energy policy until 2040 in order to make it more consistent with the ambitious climate goals of the European Union. This article also shows that Poland's energy transition must include a shift from fossil fuels to renewables, while ensuring that energy security is stabilized by the current energy and generation resources. To this end, we discuss the issues of creating reserves in the national energy system for the entire period of Poland's energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy transition is one of humanity's most significant challenges. All micro, small, medium, and large enterprises will have to face it, and some are already making progress. This paper focuses on the involvement of the smallest actors in the energy transition. Micro and small enterprises comprise the largest part of the economy and significantly impact its development. Concerning the broad scope of their activities, these entities are characterized by a specific owner–manager relationship. This means that the final decision is influenced by business objectives, the manager's approach, their awareness of change, and personal and other factors. Based on the analysis of data from 400 companies, it was found that the involvement of micro and small enterprises in the energy transition is related to their market and financial success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), located in southern Poland, is the major coal basin in Poland, and all technological types of hard coal, including coking coal, are exploited. It is also an area of high potential for coal-bed methane (CBM). Despite the increasing availability of alternative energy sources globally, it is a fact that the use of fossil fuels will remain necessary for the next few decades. Therefore, research on coal-bearing formations using modern research methods is still very important. The application of geochemistry and chemostratigraphy in reservoir characterization has become increasingly common in recent years. This paper presents the possibility of applying chemostratigraphic techniques to the study of the Carboniferous coal-bearing succession of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. The material studied comes from 121 core samples (depth 481–1298 m), representing the Mudstone Series (Westphalian A, B). Major oxide concentrations of Al2O3, SiO2, Fe2O3, P2O5, K2O, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, MnO, TiO2, and Cr2O3 were obtained using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry. Trace elements were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS). The geochemical record from the Mudstone Series shows changes in the concentration of major elements and selected trace elements, leading to the identification of four chemostratigraphic units. These units differ primarily in the content of Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, and P as well as the concentration of Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, and Ti. The study also discusses quartz origin (based on SiO2 and TiO2), sediment provenance and source-area rock compositions (based on Al2O3/ TiO2, TiO2/Zr, and La/Th), and paleoredox conditions (based on V/Cr, Ni/Co, U/Th, (Cu+Mo)/Zn, and Sr/Ba) for the chemostratigraphic units. Chemostratigraphy was used for the first time in the study of the Carboniferous coal-bearing series of the USCB, concluding that it can be used as an effective stratigraphic tool and provide new information on the possibility of correlating barren sequences of the coal-bearing succession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable development and the creation of smart, green cities requires cooperation in many scientific fields, including those related to ecology, mobility, or sustainable management, among others. Environmental protection is a particularly important element here. Atmospheric pollution, due to air movements, spreads over very large areas; therefore, air quality monitoring is crucial to ensure protection from harmful substances. One of the most severe sources of air pollution, accounting for as much as approximately 25% of total annual emissions within the EU, is road transport. Therefore, the European Union has set an ambitious target to reduce total emissions to 55% for cars and 50% for vans by 2030. In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become increasingly popular in many scientific fields, including environmental protection and photogrammetry. The use of UAVs to identify harmful pollutants allows them to gain an advantage over conventional detection methods, due to the possibility of remote (therefore safe for humans), faster, and area-based measurements. Given the ever-expanding scale of the use of this technology, this paper presents the possibilities of using UAVs to identify and visualize (map) pollution. The examples presented in the foreign literature, as well as our own research, in imaging the altitude distribution of air pollutants; gaseous pollutants: C6H6, HCHO, SO2; and particulate matter: PM1, PM2.5, PM10 demonstrate the validity of such measures. This research was carried out in the area of one of Poland's key A4 highways. The maps obtained allow for an area-wise and altitude-wise presentation of one of the significant air pollutants in the EU. In addition, they can be a valuable source of information for the implementation of future projects and the improvement of road infrastructure, thus contributing to the reduction of air pollution and the creation of so-called "green cities". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synthesis and utilization of zeolites derived from fly ash (FA) gained significant attention years ago due to their potential to address environmental challenges and promote sustainable practices subscribing to the circular economy concept. This paper highlights the recent findings regarding the synthesis and utilization of zeolites derived from FA. It begins with a discussion about the recent challenges regarding industrial waste management and statistics regarding its availability on the global market with a special insight into the situation in Poland. The characteristics of FA obtained from various fuels were presented and the main differences were highlighted. Then, different methods used for the synthesis of zeolites from FA were discussed in small and pilot scales taking into consideration the main challenges and problems. The analytical methods used in porous materials synthesis verification and properties determination were described. The sorption properties of FA-derived zeolites were presented and discussed. Finally, the paper emphasizes the potential applications of fly ash-derived zeolites in different fields. Their importance as sustainable alternatives to conventional materials in industry, construction, agriculture, power, medicine, and other industrial sectors was analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents factors affecting the effectiveness of photovoltaic (PV) plants and issues occurring in the distribution system network due to the high penetration of conventionally designed PV plants. Factors analyzed in this paper are shading, distance between panels, location of PV plants, European grid code requirements, and network constraints. Their impacts on the effectiveness of the PV power plant are presented one by one. Furthermore, the 1-year power profile of a real PV plant is rescaled to different orientations, and the energy effectiveness of different variants is compared. Finally, the economic aspects are considered by multiplying the energy produced by the energy prices. At the end, final conclusions are given and further research is outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper addresses the problem of geomechanical effects in the vicinity of production/injection wells and their impacts on the processes of enhanced oil recovery by CO2 injection and CO2 sequestration in a partially depleted oil reservoir. In particular, it focuses on natural fracture systems and their dynamics caused by variations in the rock geomechanical state due to reservoir pressure changes during production/injection processes. The comprehensive approach to the problem requires the combined modeling of both geomechanical and flow phenomena associated with effective coupling simulations of their evolution. The paper applies such an approach to a real, partially depleted oil reservoir in Poland. An effective method of coupled geomechanical and dynamic simulations was used together with the natural boundary and initial conditions for both simulation types. In addition, typical operating conditions were applied in analyzing the processes of enhanced oil recovery by CO2 injection and CO2 sequestration. The detailed results of relevant modeling and simulations are presented and discussed focusing on various scale consequences, including the reservoir, well, and completion ones. Both general conclusions as well as the ones specific to the analyzed geological structure are drawn; they confirm the significant dependence of well performance on geomechanical effects and point out several key factors for this dependence. The conclusions specific to the analyzed structure concern fracture reactivation in tensile/hybrid failure mode caused by pressure build-up during CO2 injection and the importance of the fracture-induced aperture changes resulting from the normal stress, while the shear stress is found to be negligible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the future, the development of a zero-carbon economy will require large-scale hydrogen storage. This article addresses hydrogen storage capacities, a critical issue for large-scale hydrogen storage in geological structures. The aim of this paper is to present a methodology to evaluate the potential for hydrogen storage in depleted natural gas reservoirs and estimate the capacity and energy of stored hydrogen. The estimates took into account the recoverable reserves of the reservoirs, hydrogen parameters under reservoir conditions, and reservoir parameters of selected natural gas reservoirs. The theoretical and practical storage capacities were assessed in the depleted natural gas fields of N and NW Poland. Estimates based on the proposed methodology indicate that the average hydrogen storage potential for the studied natural gas fields ranges from 0.01 to 42.4 TWh of the hydrogen energy equivalent. Four groups of reservoirs were distinguished, which differed in recovery factor and technical hydrogen storage capacity. The issues presented in the article are of interest to countries considering large-scale hydrogen storage, geological research organizations, and companies generating electricity from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing volume of household waste, especially bio-waste, poses a significant challenge to waste management systems. In Poland, bio-waste accounts for almost one third of total waste generation. To address this challenge, in the context of optimising the waste biomass value chain, we are investigating the potential of methane fermentation to convert bio-waste into valuable end products in the form of digestate (organic recycling) and biogas (a renewable energy source with a wide range of downstream applications). This paper presents the moisture content, loss on ignition and biogas and methane production efficiency for bio-waste and for the seven types of waste that are the main constituents of selectively collected bio-waste (meat, other edible waste (dairy), fruits and vegetables, grass, leaves, branches and the <10 mm fraction). Data on the technological properties of bio-waste and its constituents may be of interest to a range of stakeholders. The average moisture content ranged from 41.9% (<10 mm fraction and others) to 84.4% (fruits and vegetables), and the average organic matter content of the dry weight of the waste ranged from 37.8% (<10 mm fraction and others) to 88.7% (edible constituents other than meat and fruits and vegetables). The bio-waste had an average moisture content of 71.3 ± 1.7% and loss on ignition of 68.6 ± 1.7%. Biogas production from selectively collected bio-waste ranged from 285 to 404 Ndm3∙kg−1 DM (mean: 347 ± 53 Ndm3∙kg−1 DM), and methane production ranged from 191 to 271 Ndm3∙kg−1 DM (mean: 215 ± 33 Ndm3∙kg−1 DM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore wind energy is becoming an increasingly important element in the decarbonisation of energy systems. This study aims to estimate the technical potential for offshore wind energy in the Polish exclusive economic zone (EZZ) of the Baltic Sea. Such estimates are necessary to plan the expansion of energy infrastructure. This paper proposes a multi-criteria analysis for the estimation of offshore wind potential and site selection using QGIS software (QGIS Desktop 3.28.6). The criteria include wind velocity, water depth, distance from nature conservation areas, distance from submarine cables and gas pipelines, distance from shipping routes, distance from fishing areas, distance from shipwrecks, and distance from the coastline. The best sites are identified through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The results show that the total suitable marine area of 16,218.67 square kilometres can be divided into three parts, in which the highly suitable area for offshore wind farms accounts for 17.55%, the moderately suitable area accounts for 48.56%, and the marginally suitable area accounts for 10.26%. Two different wind turbine placement configurations are being considered, in which wind turbines with a nominal capacity of 15 MW are laid out: 2.5 km and 2 km apart from each other. The corresponding overall electrical capacities only in highly suitable areas equal ca. 9 GW and 15 GW, respectively. If this area is extended to also include the moderately suitable parts, these values increase to ca. 31 GW and 50 GW. The results indicate that the technical potential of offshore wind in the Polish EEZ is significant and should be taken into account when designing the future electricity generation mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fruit and vegetable processing comes 6th in terms of energy consumption in the agri-food industry. At the same time, 88.4% of the industry's final energy consumption structure is thermal energy, which depends heavily on electricity consumption. In addition, fruit and vegetable processing has a significant impact on the environment due to consumption of significant amounts of water. Reducing these three indicators simultaneously would increase the efficiency of the process while improving environmental protection. This paper proposes neural models of thermal energy, electricity and water consumption for selected major fruit- and vegetable-processing plants in Poland. These models were the basis for formulating a multi-criteria optimization task. Optimization of thermal energy, electricity and water consumption was carried out using genetic algorithms. The optimization results in the sense of Pareto can be the basis for the use of sustainable technology in selected fruit- and vegetable-processing plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union's climate policy aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 and to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. One of the instruments for achieving these climate goals is the development of offshore wind energy. Unfortunately, Poland, as one of the few European Union countries with access to the sea, does not have offshore wind farms yet. The purpose of this article is to determine the importance of offshore wind energy for the development of Poland based on the example of two sea regions: the West Pomeranian and Pomeranian Voivodeships. This article uses the input–output method to determine the economic effects of offshore wind power. The region's share in the supply chain was determined based on the location of the offshore wind energy sector. A comparative analysis with the Saint-Brieuc offshore wind farm in France made it possible to show the differences between the studied locations. The supply chain share of the regions surveyed was 2.28% and 6.00% in the CAPEX phase and 5.98% and 8.23% in the OPEX phase. The annual average global value in the CAPEX phase at the country level was EUR 2793 million, and at the regional level, EUR 243 million and EUR 663 million. In the OPEX phase, the corresponding values are EUR 2106 million, EUR 223 million and EUR 663 million. The average annual employment in the CAPEX phase at the national level amounted to 26,323 jobs and at the regional level, 1953 and 5804. In the OPEX phase, employment amounted to 4790, 558 and 751 jobs, respectively. On the other hand, the average annual value added in the CAPEX phase at the national level was EUR 1221 million, and at the regional level, it was EUR 106 million and EUR 290 million. In the OPEX phase, it was EUR 920 million, EUR 97 million and EUR 239 million, respectively. While not all of the findings are conclusive, in general, the domestic offshore wind industry has weaker economic linkages and lower wage levels than the location adopted for comparison. It uses more labour-intensive economic sectors with lower OPEX value added. The results of the analyses presented in this paper are of crucial importance not only for Poland, as their advantage is the possibility to present, from an economic point of view, the profitability of this type of investment in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this study was to assess the investment activity of basic local government units in the development of renewable energy sources co-financed by EU funds depending on CO2 emissions and other socio-economic conditions in terms of regions of Poland in the years 2007–2020. Empirical studies aimed at the verification of the research hypothesis that "the greatest investment activity in local projects co-financed from EU funds related to the development of renewable energy sources is observed for local government units in regions with highest CO2 emissions". Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the National Centre for Emissions Management. Thus, the conducted analyses provide both cognitive and applicatory values for the establishment of an appropriate energy transition policy in individual regions of Poland, which may be implemented by local government authorities within the current financial framework. Data concerning CO2 emissions at the regional level were estimated by applying the original disaggregation method as modified by the authors, which made it possible to fill the research gap resulting from the lack of data on emissions at the regional level. In order to show the regional diversification in investment activity of local government units in terms of renewable energy sources, its multi-faceted analysis was conducted by applying the Ward method. Clusters of regions with similar investment activity of local government units were described based on characteristics included in the typological classification (so-called active characteristics) and selected indexes showing CO2 emission levels, as well as selected socio-economic indexes (so-called passive characteristics). Based on the empirical studies, the research hypothesis presented in this paper was negatively verified. Considering both multiannual financial frameworks, the EU financial support for the development of renewable energy sources was used primarily by local government units of a predominantly agricultural character, and less advanced in terms of their development but exhibiting conditions conducive to renewable energy development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is an important producer of rapeseed used in the biofuel industry. The rate of production of the biofuel industry increased after Poland's accession to the European Union (EU). The reasons for these changes are numerous, of which the European Union's energy policy is the most important. This paper aims to analyze the performance of the biofuel industry in Poland in view of changes in the market. Moreover, I evaluated changes in the biofuel industry after Poland's accession to the EU. In addition, I analyzed the fixed and current assets of the Polish biofuel. The hypothesis that the price of rapeseed oil is the key determinant of profitability in the biodiesel industry was formulated. A statistical analysis proved the second hypothesis stating that the net profit of biodiesel companies depends on biodiesel production to the greatest extent. The time range of the analysis was 2005–2021. To analyze the economic performance of the biofuel industry in Poland, these changes were used. A regression analysis to find factors influencing the economic performance of the biofuel industry was used. More and more oils are used for the production of first-generation biofuels. Refined rapeseed oil also increased from 386.5 thousand tons to 780.6 thousand tons. Such numbers demonstrate the development of biofuel markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of research on the development of photovoltaic systems in Poland. The authors' goal was to identify factors that can potentially shape the dynamics of solar energy development in Poland and that will affect the implementation of the PEP2040 goals. The authors also wanted to find a forecasting method that would enable the introduction of many explanatory variables—a set of identified factors—into the model. After an initial review of the literature, the ARMAX and MLR models were considered. Finally, taking into account MAPE errors, multiple regression was used for the analysis, the error of which was 0.87% (minimum 3% for the ARMAX model). The model was verified based on Doornik–Hansen, Breusch–Pagan, Dickey–Fuller tests, information criteria, and ex post errors. The model indicated that LCOE, CO2 emissions, Cu consumption, primary energy consumption, patents, GDP, and installed capacity should be considered statistically significant. The model also allowed us to determine the nature of the variables. Additionally, the authors wrote the WEKR 2.0 program, which allowed to determine the necessary amount of critical raw materials needed to build the planned PV energy generating capacity. Solar energy in Poland currently covers about 5% of the country's electricity demand. The pace of development of photovoltaic installations has exceeded current expectations and forecasts included in the Polish Energy Policy until 2040 (PEP2040). The built model showed that if the explanatory variables introduced into the model continue to be subject to the same trends shaping them, a dynamic increase in photovoltaic energy production should be expected by 2025. The model indicates that the PEP2040 goal of increasing the installed capacity to 16 GW by 2040 can be achieved already in 2025, where the PV production volume could reach 8921 GWh. Models were also made taking into account individual critical raw materials such as Cu, Si, Ge, and Ga. Each of them showed statistical significance, which means that access to critical raw materials in the future will have a significant impact on the further development of photovoltaic installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents possible applications of heat pumps in buildings during the energy transformation and decarbonization of a country whose energy sector is highly centralized and based on coal. Contemporary cities are spreading beyond the existing borders and new areas cannot be supplied by the existing centralized district heating system. The only form of energy that is available on the outskirts of cities is electricity, which means that it must be used for all energy needs, including heating. In such a case, the use of heat pumps is perfectly justified in terms of energy, economy and environment, especially when they are coupled with photovoltaic systems. Hypothetical micro housing estate energy systems based on photovoltaics and heat pumps are analyzed in the paper. New options for configuration and operation of the energy systems are considered. Results of a simulation study show that by creating a common local electricity network and a local heating network powered by a central heat pump, the direct use of electricity generated in the local photovoltaic systems increases from 25% to at least 35%, thanks to enabling more even storing and consuming of solar energy during a day, compared to the independent operation of energy systems at individual houses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The public procurement system in Poland remains highly centralized, although thanks to European Community directives, it is part of European law. Therefore, it has established procedures for sustainable public procurement, including so-called green public procurement. In addition to the Public Procurement Law of 11 September 2019, other provisions introducing specific instruments (e.g., energy labels, environmental labels) should be taken into consideration, as such provisions make it easier for contracting authorities to take environmental aspects into account in tender procedures. Bearing in mind the existing legal regulations, this article features a diagnosis of the degree of use of measures to improve energy efficiency in public procurement procedures and models activities related to improving this situation. For this purpose, surveys were conducted for 120 entities applying the provisions of the Public Procurement Law. Taking into consideration the results obtained in the survey, 15 factors related to the improvement of energy efficiency in tender procedures were selected with the help of 12 purposively selected experts connected with the issues raised in this article. Thanks to their expert knowledge, three key factors determining the wider use of this instrument were modeled by means of the systems theory–based methodology of network thinking. The paper also attempts to indicate the key factors determining the wider use of this instrument, using the network thinking methodology for this purpose. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that these factors include human capital, industry, and the energy crisis. Research on the subject in the Polish literature remains innovative and allows for the formulation of application recommendations for decision makers. The concept of energy efficiency in this paper refers to the ratio of the results obtained to the energy input. Efficient use of energy aims to reduce the amount of energy needed to deliver products and services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing the phenomenon of food waste and effective management of already wasted food in the form of post-consumer waste, included in the source-separated organic fraction of municipal solid waste (SS-OFMSW) from households and catering facilities, are some of the key challenges of the circular economy (CE), in particular in highly urbanized areas. The basis for the effective use of this waste is the knowledge of its physical and chemical properties. The main objective of the paper is to identify the key technological and organizational parameters for selective collection determining the characteristics of the SS-OFMSW and, consequently, the optimal path for its management. This paper presents the results of qualitative research of SS-OFMSW generated in the capital of Poland—Warsaw—coming from three sources: multi- and single-family housing and catering facilities. The collection efficiency of this waste was determined in the form of quality in container rate (QCR = 92–97%) and variability in terms of impurities and admixtures present in it (CV = 56–87%). High variability indicates that the system of selective waste collection in Warsaw is immature, which may hinder undertaking activities in the field of waste management planning. The study confirmed the suitability of the tested SS-OFMSW for organic recycling, especially using anaerobic digestion (AD), to which it is predisposed by water content, C/N, and biomethane potential (BMP). All tested food waste is characterized by a high yield of biogas in the range of 384–426 m3/Mg VS and an average share of methane in biogas at the level of 52–61%. Fertilizer properties, moisture, and its gas potential show little variability (CV ≤ 16%), which means that these data can be treated as stable data. The obtained results indicate the optimal direction for the collection and processing of SS-OFMSW based on post-consumer food waste in urbanized areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly 60% of commercial customers are connected to a low-voltage network in Poland with a contractual capacity of more than 40 kW and are assigned a fixed tariff with flat prices for the whole year, no matter the usage volume. With smart meters, more data about how businesses use energy are becoming available to both energy providers and customers. This enables innovation in the structure and type of tariffs on offer in the energy market. Customers can explore their usage patterns to choose the most suitable tariff to benefit from lower prices and thus generate savings. In this paper, we analyzed whether customers' electricity usage matched their optimal tariff and further investigated which of them could benefit or lose from switching the tariff based on the real dataset with the hourly energy readings of 1212 commercial entities in Poland recorded between 2016 and 2019. Three modelling approaches, i.e., the k-nearest neighbors, classification tree and random forest, were tested for optimal tariff classification, while for the benchmark, we used a simple approach, in which the tariff was proposed based on the customers' previous electricity usage. The main findings from the research are threefold: (1) out of all the analyzed entities, on average, 76% of them could have benefited from the tariff switching, which suggests that customers may not be aware of the tariff change benefits, or they had chosen a tariff plan that was not tailored to them; (2) a random forest model offers a viable approach to accurate tariff classification; (3) the policy implication from the research is the need to increase the customers' awareness about the tariffs and propose reliable tools for selecting the optimal tariff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main factors for changes in the structure of the energy mix in Poland is the development of renewable energy sources, in particular wind generation. In 2009–2020, the installed capacity of wind sources in Poland increased more than ninefold. At the same time, new legislation significantly curbed the development of onshore wind farms. Further development of wind energy in Poland will rely largely on offshore wind farms. The current state of development of wind power in Poland allows for analyses of the onshore part of wind energy development in Poland. The paper aims to conduct a detailed analysis of the Polish wind sector from an electric power generation perspective. This article presents a comprehensive discussion of the development of onshore wind generation in Poland. In particular, analyses address the production of electric power from wind. Various time horizons are taken into account, as well as the correlation of wind generation with demand for power in the Polish Power System (PPS). The results of the analysis indicate a high variability of wind generation throughout the month or year. The largest wind generation occurred during the night valley, which makes it difficult to operate the power system. In the winter months, wind generation is much greater than in the summer months. Monthly average values of the capacity factor for onshore wind farms (WFs) vary from 0.14 in August to 0.48 in February. Moreover, the coefficient of determination R2 close to zero shows a lack of correlation between offshore wind power generation and real power demand in the PPS. The studied high variability of wind generation in PPS can be mitigated by the wide use of electricity storage systems. Moreover, the obtained results can be part of a model to describe the energy mix in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is indisputable that power systems are being transformed around the world to increase the use of RES and reduce the use of fossil fuels in overall electricity production. This year, the EU Parliament adopted the Fit for 55 package, which should significantly reduce the use of fossil fuels in the energy balance of EU countries while increasing the use of RES. At the end of 2022, the total number of prosumer installations in Poland amounted to about one million two hundred thousand. Such a high saturation of prosumer micro-installations in the power system causes many threats resulting from their operation. These threats result, among others, from the fact that photovoltaics are classified as unstable sources and the expected production of electricity from such installations is primarily associated with highly variable weather conditions and is only dependent on people to a minor extent. Currently, there is a rapid development of topics related to forecasting the volume of energy production from unstable sources such as wind and photovoltaic power plants. This issue is being actively developed by research units around the world. Scientists use a whole range of tools and models related to forecasting techniques, from physical models to artificial intelligence. According to our findings, the use of machine learning models has the greatest chance of obtaining positive prognostic effects for small, widely distributed prosumer installations. The present paper presents the research results of two energy balance prediction algorithms based on machine learning models. For forecasting, we proposed two regression models, i.e., regularized LASSO regression and random forests. The work analyzed scenarios taking into account both endogenous and exogenous variables as well as direct multi-step forecasting and recursive multi-step forecasting. The training was carried out on real data obtained from a prosumer micro-installation. Finally, it was found that the best forecasting results are obtained with the use of a random forest model trained using a recursive multi-step method and an exogenous scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of the study was to assess the possibility of practical use of products of pyrolysis of refuse-derived fuel (RDF), i.e., pyrolysis gas, biochar and pyrolysis oil, as an alternative to standard fossil fuels. The subject matter of the paper reaches out to the challenges faced by the global economy, not only in the context of the energy crisis, but also in the context of the energy transformation currently beginning in Europe. The increase in fuel and energy prices prompts countries to look for alternative solutions to Russian minerals. At the same time, the growing amount of municipal waste forces the implementation of solutions based on energy recovery (the amount of municipal waste per EU inhabitant in 2021 is 530 kg). One such solution is pyrolysis of RDF, i.e., fuels produced from the over-sieve fraction of municipal waste. In Poland, insufficient processing capacity of thermal waste conversion plants has led to significant surpluses of RDF (1.2 million Mg of undeveloped RDF in Poland in 2021). RDF, due to their high calorific value, can be a valuable energy resource (16–18 MJ/k). This issue is analyzed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overview: Photovoltaic (PV) systems are widely used in residential applications in Poland and Europe due to increasing environmental concerns and fossil fuel energy prices. Energy management strategies for residential systems (1.2 million prosumer PV installations in Poland) play an important role in reducing energy bills and maximizing profits. Problem: This article aims to check how predictable the operation of a household PV system is in the short term—such predictions are usually made 24 h in advance. Methods: We made a comparative study of different energy management strategies based on a real household profile (selected energy storage installation) based on both traditional methods and various artificial intelligence (AI) tools, which is a new approach, so far rarely used and underutilized, and may inspire further research, including those based on the paradigm of Industry 4.0 and, increasingly, Industry 5.0. Results: This paper discusses the results for different operational scenarios, considering two prosumer billing systems in Poland (net metering and net billing). Conclusions: Insights into future research directions and their limitations due to legal status, etc., are presented. The novelty and contribution lies in the demonstration that, in the case of domestic PV grids, even simple AI solutions can prove effective in inference and forecasting to support energy flow management and make it more predictable and efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of ongoing climate changes and the current geopolitical situation, Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are continuously gaining popularity in many countries. Objectives related to environmental protection and the use of RES set by different countries all over the world, as well as by the European Union (EU), are becoming priorities for many. The increase in the installed capacity of photovoltaic systems has been growing steadily for several years, leading to the creation of new systems accompanying PV installations; this phenomenon has also been observed in Poland. This paper presents a photovoltaic system in the form of a bicycle shed next to a school building as an example of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) without connection to the power grid. It was shown that the energy consumption profile should be properly correlated with the production profile, otherwise significant losses occur. Alternative methods to improve the correlation of production and energy consumption by using SCADA systems or building automation to properly manage the electricity generation and consumption installation were also proposed. Furthermore, it was shown that adopting a fixed discount rate in financial analyses can distort the picture of real profits. An analysis of the changes in the NPV ratio using variable discount rates was carried out when analyzing the entire life of the solar plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of the authors' research on the share of energy costs in revenues and their impact on the profitability of companies. This research was inspired by a large increase in energy prices in 2022. The authors analyzed the shares of energy consumption costs in production companies from various industries, using various sources: scientific literature, expert studies, and statistical data. Based on the results of these analyses, the authors simulated the impact of changes in energy prices on the profitability of companies. The research results are as follows: according to the authors, the share of these costs in the value of sales is much lower (several percent) than presented in various literature sources (a dozen or so, and even up to 30% in some cases). Despite this, however, the change in energy prices should significantly reduce profitability according to the simulations conducted by the authors. However, the financial reports analyzed by the authors show that profitability in many cases not only did not deteriorate, but revenues and profits increased in a large number of companies. In many cases, this can be explained by the actions taken by companies to reduce energy consumption costs and by increases in product prices. The authors' research also shows that if factors such as the specificity of the industry or the size of the company have an impact on energy efficiency, it is only to a small extent. The share of energy costs in sales and financial results, even within a given industry and in companies of similar size, varies greatly. The authors therefore believe that the effectiveness of the management of a given company has the greatest impact. Therefore, the results of the analysis differ significantly from the results of studies presented in the literature. Energy consumption data were analyzed using various literature sources from different countries. However, the main analyses conducted by the authors focused on Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The awareness of environmental pollution has been continuously growing in recent decades and is currently reaching its maximum. Europe and most developed countries are determined to ensure safe breathing air for their citizens, and the measures to do so are stricter than ever before. Combustion procedures remain the primary means of producing energy and warmth in Poland. Among the notable constituents of flue gases produced as a result of fuel combustion, solid particles (or particulate matter) hold significant prominence. The paper presents the chemical characterisation of particulate matter emitted from stationary and automotive emission sources. Stationary emission sources included the combustion process of fossil fuels (soft wood, bituminous coal, ecopea coal, culm) in domestic heating units and the process of combustion of bituminous coal in a power plant. Automotive emission sources included light duty and medium duty vehicles fuelled by diesel. Exhaust toxicity tests were carried out maintaining the real conditions of PM emission. In all field measurements particulate matter was gravimetrically measured and collected on quartz or glass fibre filters. Subsequently, the content of carbonaceous fraction, inorganic ions, and metals and metalloids was analyzed using different analytical techniques. The chemical composition of the particulate matter differed depending on the emission source. With respect to stationary combustion sources, the main factors determining solid particle emission are related primarily to the fuel quality. The duty of vehicles was also a factor that influenced the chemical characterisation of the particulate matter emitted from the engines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) into energy systems requires a meticulous assessment of various factors, spanning renewable energy potential, legal frameworks, technical considerations, community engagement, and consumer preferences. This article synthesizes a multifaceted discussion on the subject, focusing on the need for comprehensive analyses before deciding to implement SMRs. Drawing insights from geographic information systems (GIS) and lessons from renewable energy development in Poland, this paper underscores the significance of aligning energy strategies with local needs, emphasizing stakeholder participation. This study examines the factors influencing location attractiveness for various energy technologies, including small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), wind, solar, and hydroelectric power plants, within Poland. Employing 17 indicators sourced from Statistics Poland and URE, coupled with the application of the k-means algorithm, we outline four distinct clusters that delineate the zones of location attractiveness for SMRs and other renewable energy sources. While large and medium-sized cities exhibit optimal location attractiveness, coastal counties in northern Poland emerge as more suitable for renewable energy sources than for SMRs. The study outlines four distinct energy development strategies based on typologies of regions, each tailored to maximize the utility of available resources and minimize environmental impact. The strategies encompass renewable energy utilization, energy efficiency enhancement, energy diversification, and adaptation through innovation. Emphasizing the interplay between renewable energy potential, energy demand, and local conditions, the research suggests the strategic deployment of SMRs as part of an energy mix in areas where renewable energy resources are limited. By leveraging SMRs' continuous energy production, these reactors can complement intermittent renewables, bolstering energy security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is a key driver of all modern economies. Sustainable development is playing an increasingly important role both at regional and local levels. It is a compromise between social and economic needs and the preservation of nature. In the policy of the European Union, the idea of sustainable development and environmental protection is of decisive importance for the implemented programs and economic activities. Contemporary challenges require the transformation of the energy market towards greater use of renewable sources. According to Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and European Council on promoting energy from renewable sources, Poland has committed itself to achieving a 23% share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption by 2030. This goal considers total energy consumption in terms of power, engineering, heating, refrigeration, and transport. The aim of this paper was, firstly, an analysis of the share of renewable energy in the European Union over an 18-year period (2004–2021), with particular emphasis on the position of Poland. The second objective was the analysis of renewable energy at the local level in Poland, i.e., at the local government unit (LAU) level. Changes in the share of renewable energy in Poland compared to other European countries were also examined. The study utilized functional analysis of principal components and cluster analysis based on the data from the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT. The study found that while Poland does not differ significantly from other countries in using renewable energy, it does fall below the European average. Principal component analysis suggests that Poland responds adequately to European changes in the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption. This dynamic is stable (over 95% explained by the first component) and applies to most countries surveyed. In addition, the authors sought to answer questions relating to the current status of renewable energy sources in Poland, the barriers and challenges facing the introduction of renewable energy in the country, a comparative analysis of Poland's progress in renewable energy with other global counterparts, and an exploration of the future prospects and potential for the development of renewable energy in Poland. The study found that the potential for renewable energy is greatest in the northern areas of Poland, with photovoltaics and wind power plants providing the greatest capacity. Poland's renewable energy potential is very high and will be determined by technological development, political, economic, and social issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Huge amounts of carbon being sequestered in forest ecosystems make them an important land carbon sink at the global scale. Their ability to withdraw carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere, whose concentration is gradually increasing due to anthropogenic emissions, renders them important natural climate-mitigation solutions. The urgent need for transition from high to zero net emission on country, continental, and global scales, to slow down the warming to an acceptable level, calls for the analysis of different economic sectors' roles in reaching that ambitious goal. Here, we examine changes in CO 2 emission and sequestration rates during recent decades focusing on the coal-dominated energy sector and Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) as well as wood production at the country level. The main purpose of the presented study is to examine the potential of storing carbon in standing forest biomass and wood products in Poland as well as the impact of disturbances. The ratio of LULUCF absorption of CO 2 to its emission in Poland has ranged from about 1% in 1992 to over 15% in 2005. From a climate-change mitigation point of view, the main challenge is how to maximize the rate and the duration of CO 2 withdrawal from the atmosphere by its storage in forest biomass and wood products. Enhancing carbon sequestration and storage in forest biomass, via sustainable and smart forestry, is considered to be a nature-based climate solution. However, not only forests but also wood-processing industries should be included as important contributors to climate-change mitigation, since harvested wood products substitute materials like concrete, metal, and plastic, which have a higher carbon footprint. The energy perspective of the paper embraces two aspects. First, CO 2 sequestration in forests and subsequently in harvested wood products, is an effective strategy to offset a part of national CO 2 emissions, resulting largely from fossil fuel burning for energy-production purposes. Second, wood as biomass is a renewable energy source itself, which played an important role in sustaining energy security for many individual citizens of Poland during the unusual conditions of winter 2022/2023, with a scarce coal supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose dynamic, short-term, financial risk management strategies for small electricity producers and buyers that trade in the wholesale electricity markets. Since electricity is mostly nonstorable, financial risk coming from extremely volatile electricity prices cannot be reduced by using standard finance-based approaches. Instead, a short-term operational planing and a proper trade diversification might be used. In this paper, we analyze the price risk in terms of the Markowitz mean–variance portfolio theory. Hence, it is crucial to forecast properly the variance of electricity prices. To this end, we jointly model day-ahead and intraday or balancing prices from Germany and Poland using ARX-GARCH type models. We show that using heteroscedastic volatility significantly improves probabilistic price forecasts according to the pinball score, especially if variance stabilizing transformation is applied prior to a model estimation. The price forecasts are then used for construction of dynamic diversification strategies that are based on volatility-type risk measures. We consider different objectives as well as a buyer's and a seller's perspective. The proposed strategies are applied for the diversification of trade among different markets in Germany and Poland. We show that the objective of the strategy can be achieved using the proposed approach, but the risk minimization is usually related to lower profits. We find that risk minimization is especially important for a seller in both markets, while for a buyer a profit maximization objective leads to a more optimal risk–return trade-off. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The disruption of fossil fuel supply chains due to the war in Ukraine has resulted in the need for an urgent reorganisation of the energy supply system, the cost of which has created a substantial increase in electricity prices in many markets. In light of the above, the need for the development of a renewable energy market has become stronger than ever; hence, the authors of this study have oriented their efforts towards investigating the development of the renewable energy market in countries bordering the line of armed conflict in Ukraine, i.e., Poland—strongly dependent on traditional forms of energy production—and Lithuania. The primary objective of the paper is to review the literature on wind energy, which is necessary to establish the current role of this energy dimension in the renewable energy market in the energy systems of Poland and Lithuania. Therefore, this review paper is oriented towards a review and evaluation of the available thematic literature and industry studies, as well as conclusions related to the number and direction of research topics in the area of the explored issues. The basic finding of this review is that the reviewed literature and studies are most strongly oriented towards a general assessment of the ongoing energy transition in the world, in which the thread of the assessment of the energy situation in Poland and Lithuania, including the thread of the analysis of wind energy, is part of broader assessments, most often regarding EU countries. The wind energy of the countries included in the scope of the review is not discussed comprehensively. The gap identified in this respect relates in particular to the aspect of wind energy development potential concerning solutions targeted at the individual consumer. In quantitative terms, studies addressing wind energy in Lithuania represent a lower percentage of the thematic literature acquired for the review. In the area of noted niches, the need for research and analysis is recommended to increase the information supply for developing the renewable energy market in Poland and Lithuania. In doing so, it is important to explore the technical and technological solutions (with a focus on the individual customer) and the economic aspects of wind installations from a micro and macro perspective. In addition, there is a lack of sufficient studies revealing the position of public opinion regarding the development of this dimension of the RES market and the direction of its changes. This is an important problem—particularly in Poland, where the so-called distance law constantly blocks the development of this dimension of RES and where the need to develop energy from renewable sources is particularly urgent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combining biomass-fired power generation with CO2 capture and storage leads to so-called negative CO2 emissions. Negative CO2 emissions can already be obtained when coal is co-fired with biomass in a power plant with CCS technology. The need for bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage has been identified as one of the key technologies to keep global warming below 2 °C, as this is one of the large-scale technologies that can remove CO2 from the atmosphere. According to the definition of bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage, capturing and storing the CO2 originating from biomass, along with the biomass binding with carbon from the atmosphere as it grows, will result in net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. Another technology option for CO2 removal from the atmosphere is direct air capture. The idea of a net carbon balance for different systems (including bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage, and direct air capture) has been presented in the literature. This paper gives a background on carbon dioxide removal solutions—with a focus on ecology, economy, and policy-relevant distinctions in technology. As presented in this paper, the bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage is superior to direct air capture for countries like Poland in terms of ecological impact. This is mainly due to the electricity generation mix structure (highly dependent on fossil fuels), which shifts the CO2 emissions to upstream processes, and relatively the low environmental burden for biomass acquisition. Nevertheless, the depletion of non-renewable natural resources for newly built bioenergy power plant with CO2 capture and storage, and direct air capture with surplus wind energy, has a similar impact below 0.5 GJ3x/t of negative CO2 emissions. When the economic factors are a concern, the use of bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage provides an economic justification at current CO2 emission allowance prices of around 90 EUR/t CO2. Conversely, for direct air capture to be viable, the cost would need to be from 3 to 4.5 times higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy crisis is affecting a number of countries, but particularly those that are heavily dependent on the traditional energy generation formula (e.g., Poland), as well as those neighbouring the territory of the ongoing war in Ukraine, i.e., Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. With this in mind, the authors of this study decided to explore the issue of water energy as a source of green (cheap and environmentally safe) energy in these countries. The main objective of the paper is to review the available literature, which is needed to identify the role hydropower plays in energy security and energy transition in these energy markets. This paper is based on a review and critical appraisal of the available literature and studies together with an inference. The structure of the paper consists of an introduction, the main part of the review and conclusions. The geopolitical location and socio-economic conditions of the adopted set of countries, form the basis of the review of the existing literature on the theme explored and the substantive inference. The main findings of this review indicate that the literature is most strongly focused on the overall assessment of the energy transition of the adopted countries for review, where the hydropower thread is most often taken up as one source of renewable energy supply. Hydropower, due to its relatively low share in the energy systems of the adopted set of countries, is, according to the authors, insufficiently explored. The most significant gap relates to the aspect of the potential for hydropower development in these areas, considering both the construction of new hydropower plants and opportunities signalled in the literature for the modernisation or restoration of existing ones. In this respect, the need for analyses (studies and simulations) of hydropower development, considering the economic benefits associated with their development juxtaposed with the safety dimension of this course of action for the environment (analysis and assessment of environmental costs) is indicated, which is the main recommendation of the review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to give a universal methodology for assessing the storage capacity of a bedded rock salt formation in terms of the operational and strategic storage facilities for liquid fuels. The method assumes the development of a geological model of the analyzed rock salt formation and the determination of the salt caverns' size and spacing and the impact of convergence on their capacity during operation. Based on this method, the paper presents calculations of the storage capacity using the example of the bedded rock salt formations in Poland and their results in the form of storage capacity maps. The maps show that the analyzed rock salt deposits' storage capacity in northern Poland amounts to 7.1 B m3 and in the Fore-Sudetic Monocline to 10.5 B m3, in the case of strategic storage facilities. The spatial analysis of the storage capacity rasters, including determining the raster volumes and their unique values, allowed us to quantify the variability of the storage capacity in the analyzed rock salt deposits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to investigate the future evolution of port systems considering the development of major and minor ports, inter-port competition, and feasible cargo shifts resulting from improved capacity or congestion faced by ports. The literature review on port system dynamics indicates that the relationships that emerge between major and minor ports located in the range stem from competition and cooperation. However, we argue that there are essential ports that play a predominant role in shaping these relationships, while inter-port relations in the system are based on competition. With the use of transshipment forecasts, existing and emerging interdependencies among major and minor ports in the system, and capacity development and/or changes in the level of capacity utilisation, the ex-ante dynamics of the port system are evaluated. The subject of research is two port systems, namely, the Polish port system and the Rhine–Scheldt Delta port system. We investigate the future dynamics in each port system and find that the evolution pattern has different features if the minor ports improve capacity or challenge the major ports by offering free capacity. This paper contributes to research on the evolution of multi-port formations and provides new insights to the peripheral port challenge phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the scientific discourse on consumption, increasingly more attention is being paid to sustainable development. Regarding the fact that not only various types of enterprises, but also consumers contribute to the excessive consumption of natural resources, it is of crucial importance to reduce the knowledge gap in the field of sustainable consumer behavior and decision-making processes related to the choice of organic products. The paper aims to present the decision-making processes of Polish consumers of renewable energy against the background of other categories of ecological products. Special attention is paid to the extent in which the offer is adjusted to the needs of consumers of renewable energy in Poland, compared to other categories of ecological products. The paper also shows the perception of the consumer of ecological products by buyers of renewable energy and by people who do not buy ecological products. The paper is based on a literature review and the results of a quantitative empirical study. The quantitative research was performed on a nationwide sample of 1032 people, among whom 509 people bought an organic product in the last 3 months, and 523 people did not purchase such a product during this period. The analysis of the results allows us to conclude that in the case of renewable energy, factors such as price, quality and the producer's certification play a crucial role in the decision-making processes of Polish consumers. The hierarchy of criteria considered in the decision-making process related to the purchase of renewable energy and equipment enabling the use of renewable energy sources is quite similar to the one observed when purchasing electric cars. At the same time, it should be noted that almost every second person purchasing renewable energy compares many offers and spends a relatively long time contemplating their choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]