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This paper presents the process of creating a model for electric vehicle (EV) energy consumption, enabling the rapid generation of results and the creation of energy maps. The most robust validation indicators were exhibited by an artificial intelligence method, specifically neural networks. Within this framework, two predictive models for EV energy consumption were developed for winter and summer conditions, based on actual driving cycles. These models hold particular significance for microscale road analyses. The resultant model, for test data in summer conditions, demonstrates validation indicators of an R2 of 86% and an MSE of 1.4, while, for winter conditions, its values are 89% and 2.8, respectively, confirming its high precision. The paper also presents exemplary applications of the developed models, utilizing both real and simulated microscale data. The results obtained and the presented methodology can be especially advantageous for decision makers in the management of city roads and infrastructure planners, aiding both cognitive understanding and the better planning of charging infrastructure networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the LCOE for photovoltaics has decreased several times, it is once again gaining popularity. The intensification of the development of PV installations is contributing to the duck curve phenomenon in an increasing number of countries and, consequently, affecting current electricity prices. Decisions on new investments in large-scale PV sources are driven by potential economic and environmental effects, and these, in turn, are subject to locational considerations, both as to the country and its region. In calculating the economic impact of locating a 1 MWp PV farm, it was assumed that the electricity generated by the farm would be fed into the national grid, and that the life of the PV farm would be 20 years. Poland was considered as an example country for the placement of a photovoltaic farm. The authors of this paper proposed that the main verification parameter is the availability of connection capacities to feed the produced electricity into the country's electricity grid. The methodology proposed by the authors for the selection of the location of a PV farm consists of four steps: step (i) identification and selection of the administrative division of a given country; step (ii) verification of available connection capacities; step (iii) (two stages) verification of other factors related to the location of the PV farm (e.g., information on land availability and the distance of the land from the substation), and analysis of productivity at each potential location and electricity prices achieved on the power exchange; step (iv) economic analysis of the investment—analyses of PV farm energy productivity in monetary terms on an annual basis, cost analysis (CAPEX, OPEX) and evaluation of economic efficiency (DPP, NPV, IRR). The greatest impact on the economic efficiency of a PV project is shown by the value of land (as part of CAPEX), which is specific to a given location, and revenues from energy sales, which are pretty similar for all locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in the share of renewable energy sources (RES) leads to a growing need for sources or systems/actions to stabilize the national energy grid. Such stabilizing actions include market tools, such as prices and demand-side response (DSR) tools, as well as flexible energy sources (e.g., gas). In addition, energy storage, where pumped storage hydroelectricity (PSH) accounts for 90% of global storage capacity, plays an important role. Therefore, the authors presented a detailed analysis of PSH in the context of the dynamic growth of installed capacity in renewable energy sources. They analyzed the economic viability of this type of power plant, with a particular emphasis on operational costs, energy production, and revenue. The Młoty case study and market data, including historical data on various PSH, were presented and analyzed. This study uses copulas, simulation, and statistical analysis. The authors proved that market prices and arbitrage actions alone are not sufficient to achieve profitability of the investment; however, additional benefits, such as fees for available power, enable the achievement of economic profitability. The reason for this is the fact that one of the main goals of PSH is to serve as a power reserve. In addition, this paper presents the analysis of the utilization of existing PSH in the form of full pumping and energy generation cycles (charging and discharging storage). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the future, the development of a zero-carbon economy will require large-scale hydrogen storage. This article addresses hydrogen storage capacities, a critical issue for large-scale hydrogen storage in geological structures. The aim of this paper is to present a methodology to evaluate the potential for hydrogen storage in depleted natural gas reservoirs and estimate the capacity and energy of stored hydrogen. The estimates took into account the recoverable reserves of the reservoirs, hydrogen parameters under reservoir conditions, and reservoir parameters of selected natural gas reservoirs. The theoretical and practical storage capacities were assessed in the depleted natural gas fields of N and NW Poland. Estimates based on the proposed methodology indicate that the average hydrogen storage potential for the studied natural gas fields ranges from 0.01 to 42.4 TWh of the hydrogen energy equivalent. Four groups of reservoirs were distinguished, which differed in recovery factor and technical hydrogen storage capacity. The issues presented in the article are of interest to countries considering large-scale hydrogen storage, geological research organizations, and companies generating electricity from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore wind energy is becoming an increasingly important element in the decarbonisation of energy systems. This study aims to estimate the technical potential for offshore wind energy in the Polish exclusive economic zone (EZZ) of the Baltic Sea. Such estimates are necessary to plan the expansion of energy infrastructure. This paper proposes a multi-criteria analysis for the estimation of offshore wind potential and site selection using QGIS software (QGIS Desktop 3.28.6). The criteria include wind velocity, water depth, distance from nature conservation areas, distance from submarine cables and gas pipelines, distance from shipping routes, distance from fishing areas, distance from shipwrecks, and distance from the coastline. The best sites are identified through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The results show that the total suitable marine area of 16,218.67 square kilometres can be divided into three parts, in which the highly suitable area for offshore wind farms accounts for 17.55%, the moderately suitable area accounts for 48.56%, and the marginally suitable area accounts for 10.26%. Two different wind turbine placement configurations are being considered, in which wind turbines with a nominal capacity of 15 MW are laid out: 2.5 km and 2 km apart from each other. The corresponding overall electrical capacities only in highly suitable areas equal ca. 9 GW and 15 GW, respectively. If this area is extended to also include the moderately suitable parts, these values increase to ca. 31 GW and 50 GW. The results indicate that the technical potential of offshore wind in the Polish EEZ is significant and should be taken into account when designing the future electricity generation mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main factors for changes in the structure of the energy mix in Poland is the development of renewable energy sources, in particular wind generation. In 2009–2020, the installed capacity of wind sources in Poland increased more than ninefold. At the same time, new legislation significantly curbed the development of onshore wind farms. Further development of wind energy in Poland will rely largely on offshore wind farms. The current state of development of wind power in Poland allows for analyses of the onshore part of wind energy development in Poland. The paper aims to conduct a detailed analysis of the Polish wind sector from an electric power generation perspective. This article presents a comprehensive discussion of the development of onshore wind generation in Poland. In particular, analyses address the production of electric power from wind. Various time horizons are taken into account, as well as the correlation of wind generation with demand for power in the Polish Power System (PPS). The results of the analysis indicate a high variability of wind generation throughout the month or year. The largest wind generation occurred during the night valley, which makes it difficult to operate the power system. In the winter months, wind generation is much greater than in the summer months. Monthly average values of the capacity factor for onshore wind farms (WFs) vary from 0.14 in August to 0.48 in February. Moreover, the coefficient of determination R2 close to zero shows a lack of correlation between offshore wind power generation and real power demand in the PPS. The studied high variability of wind generation in PPS can be mitigated by the wide use of electricity storage systems. Moreover, the obtained results can be part of a model to describe the energy mix in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is a key driver of all modern economies. Sustainable development is playing an increasingly important role both at regional and local levels. It is a compromise between social and economic needs and the preservation of nature. In the policy of the European Union, the idea of sustainable development and environmental protection is of decisive importance for the implemented programs and economic activities. Contemporary challenges require the transformation of the energy market towards greater use of renewable sources. According to Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and European Council on promoting energy from renewable sources, Poland has committed itself to achieving a 23% share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption by 2030. This goal considers total energy consumption in terms of power, engineering, heating, refrigeration, and transport. The aim of this paper was, firstly, an analysis of the share of renewable energy in the European Union over an 18-year period (2004–2021), with particular emphasis on the position of Poland. The second objective was the analysis of renewable energy at the local level in Poland, i.e., at the local government unit (LAU) level. Changes in the share of renewable energy in Poland compared to other European countries were also examined. The study utilized functional analysis of principal components and cluster analysis based on the data from the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT. The study found that while Poland does not differ significantly from other countries in using renewable energy, it does fall below the European average. Principal component analysis suggests that Poland responds adequately to European changes in the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption. This dynamic is stable (over 95% explained by the first component) and applies to most countries surveyed. In addition, the authors sought to answer questions relating to the current status of renewable energy sources in Poland, the barriers and challenges facing the introduction of renewable energy in the country, a comparative analysis of Poland's progress in renewable energy with other global counterparts, and an exploration of the future prospects and potential for the development of renewable energy in Poland. The study found that the potential for renewable energy is greatest in the northern areas of Poland, with photovoltaics and wind power plants providing the greatest capacity. Poland's renewable energy potential is very high and will be determined by technological development, political, economic, and social issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the paper we provide an analysis of the potential of agricultural holdings for biomass production, an assessment of the level of farm sustainability and a description of the farming conditions of agricultural holdings depending on the degree of natural valuation of a given area. The approach makes it possible to assess the level of sustainability of farms, also in the context of their potential and taking into account the quality of the production space and its importance for increasing biodiversity. We use public and unpublished data of Statistics Poland (2005, 2007, 2016) as well as data on farms keeping accounts for the Polish FADN in 2016–2018. The paper shows that although concentration processes are progressing, farm productivity is increasing, but this is linked to specialisation, leading to efficient management of labour and land resources. Nevertheless, the decreasing number of farms with proper winter vegetation cover and optimal balances was confirmed. The farming conditions of the farms should take into account the share and degree of natural value of the production space of the areas (municipalities) in which they are located. The study found that farms in municipalities with a high share of high natural value farmland (HNVf) areas, compared to the other municipalities, characterized by lower livestock density per ha UAA, which indicates their less intensive organisation of agricultural production. Moreover, in these municipalities, as their natural value increased, the share of forests and waters in the total area increased and the share of permanent grassland in the total area decreased slightly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy crisis in Europe in 2022 and its consequences have brought changes to approaches towards the issue of energy security, energy policy, and the ability to react to crisis phenomena in the energy market in a short period of time. European countries that are dependent on Russian fossil fuels have faced numerous dilemmas and challenges in 2022. This paper aims to analyse the instruments and energy policies introduced as the reactions of European countries, specifically with the examples of Poland and Germany, to the ongoing fossil fuel crisis in the context of a short period. Due to the specificity of the energy market, the countries' energy policies mainly concern long- and medium-term goals. In 2022, there was an unprecedented situation in which many European countries had to make significant changes to their fossil fuel imports quickly. We analyse and evaluate how two European countries that are heavily reliant on imported energy resources responded in a short time to the necessity of modifying their patterns of fossil fuel supply and demand. The results of our research are models that illustrate both countries' reactions to the disturbances in the energy market during the initial months of the energy crisis. As part of the research, we conducted an analysis of the energy mix of Poland and Germany, their import energy dependency, and self-sufficiency. We then compared them with the short-term energy policies of both countries. As a result, we elaborate on a comparative analysis of the models of Poland's and Germany's responses to the crisis. The research also assesses the similarities and differences in the response models in Poland's and Germany's short-term energy security policies. The results of our research may help, in the future, to choose the available short-term instruments in the energy policy of countries in the face of a sudden need resulting from disruptions in supply chains. The article contributes to the future discussion on renewed national and regional energy security, as well as efficiency concepts. Our research findings could be valuable in selecting appropriate short-term energy policy tools for countries during supply chain disruptions. This article provides significant input for future deliberations on enhancing national and regional energy security, and also efficiency strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for clean energy and the global shift towards renewable sources necessitate reliable solar radiation forecasting for the effective integration of solar energy into the energy system. Reliable solar radiation forecasting has become crucial for the design, planning, and operational management of energy systems, especially in the context of ambitious greenhouse gas emission goals. This paper presents a study on the application of auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models for the seasonal forecasting of solar radiation in different climatic conditions. The performance and prediction capacity of ARIMA models are evaluated using data from Jordan and Poland. The essence of ARIMA modeling and analysis of the use of ARIMA models both as a reference model for evaluating other approaches and as a basic forecasting model for forecasting renewable energy generation are presented. The current state of renewable energy source utilization in selected countries and the adopted transition strategies to a more sustainable energy system are investigated. ARIMA models of two time series (for monthly and hourly data) are built for two locations and a forecast is developed. The research findings demonstrate that ARIMA models are suitable for solar radiation forecasting and can contribute to the stable long-term integration of solar energy into countries' systems. However, it is crucial to develop location-specific models due to the variability of solar radiation characteristics. This study provides insights into the use of ARIMA models for solar radiation forecasting and highlights their potential for supporting the planning and operation of energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the conditions behind energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Poland following its accession to the European Union. The study analyzed some energy, fossil fuel, economic, and environmental indicators, such as energy use, CO2 emissions, driving factors, decoupling elasticity status, and decoupling effort status. It relied on the Kaya identity and Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) in determining the drivers of CO2 emissions. As shown by the results, between 2004 and 2020, energy consumption in Poland grew at an average annual rate of 0.8%, while fossil fuel carbon emissions declined at 0.7% per year. Energy intensity was found to be the key force behind the reduction in CO2 emissions, whereas rapid economic growth was the main driver of CO2 emissions. While other factors, i.e., carbon intensity, energy mix, and population, also contributed to reducing the emissions, they had a much smaller—if not marginal—effect. In turn, the decoupling elasticity analysis showed that Poland mostly witnessed strong decoupling states, which means a strong decoupling of CO2 emissions from economic growth. Furthermore, it follows from the decoupling effort analysis that strong decoupling effort statuses prevailed throughout the study period, suggesting that the changes in the considered factors significantly contributed to reducing CO2 emissions. However, both the decoupling elasticity indices and the decoupling effort indices revealed the presence of an adverse trend. The above means that Poland witnessed a decline both in the strength of decoupling CO2 emissions from economic growth and in the efficiency of policies and measures designed to reduce CO2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European steel industry is experiencing new challenges related to the market situation and climate policy. Experience from the period of pandemic restrictions and the effects of Russia's armed invasion of Ukraine has given many countries a basis for including steel along with raw materials (coke, iron ore, electricity) in economic security products (CRMA). Steel is needed for economic infrastructure and construction development as well as a material for other industries (without steel, factories will not produce cars, machinery, ships, washing machines, etc.). In 2022, steelmakers faced a deepening energy crisis and economic slowdown. The market situation prompted steelmakers to impose restrictions on production volumes (worldwide production fell by 4% compared to the previous year). Despite the difficult economic situation of the steel industry (production in EU countries fell by 11% in 2022 compared to the previous year), the EU is strengthening its industrial decarbonisation policy ("Fit for 55"). The decarbonisation of steel production is set to accelerate by 2050. To sharply reduce carbon emissions, steel mills need new steelmaking technologies. The largest global, steelmakers are already investing in new technologies that will use green hydrogen (produced from renewable energy sources). Reducing iron ore with hydrogen plasma will drastically reduce CO2 emissions (steel production using hydrogen could emit up to 95% less CO2 than the current BF + BOF blast furnace + basic oxygen furnace integrated method). Investments in new technologies must be tailored to the steel industry. A net zero strategy (deep decarbonisation goal) may have different scenarios in different EU countries. The purpose of this paper was to introduce the conditions for investing in low-carbon steelmaking technologies in the Polish steel market and to develop (based on expert opinion) scenarios for the decarbonisation of the Polish steel industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores ways to save energy in households with energy prosumers who generate energy using photovoltaic panels and heat pumps. On the basis of a literature analysis, we formulated a research gap in the case of the energy behaviors of prosumers. This research is important due to the growing demand for energy and the transitions of countries toward renewable energy sources. The role of prosumers in the economy is growing as they ensure energy independence and cost savings. The main purpose of this research is to understand the energy behaviors of prosumers and to examine the differences in energy behaviors between users of photovoltaic systems and heat pumps. A sample of 326 Polish prosumer households was selected using the CAWI method in order to obtain empirical data. The results suggest that prosumers show advanced ecological behaviors, and more than half of the respondents implement pro-ecological behaviors in their homes. Being a prosumer is associated with energy independence, which leads to economic stability and less dependence on traditional energy sources. The results indicate that prosumers show a general inclination toward pro-ecological behavior. Thus, this study recommends promoting prosumers and encouraging the use of pro-ecological energy as a priority for the economy. This initiative will contribute to a reduction in energy consumption in various areas, thus raising ecological awareness and a sense of responsibility for the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The considerable share of natural gas in the aggregated gross available energy clearly indicates the resource's importance for the energy security of EU states. Natural gas shortages caused by energy crises result in the resource's price increases in foreign markets. The condition of the global energy system translates directly to the prices of natural gas for households. The main research objectives were the analysis of prices of household natural gas in the EU, and identification of key factors affecting the prices of household natural gas in Poland and their effect on the prices established in domestic tariffs. The secondary data analysis method (desk research) was used in the research. The 2017–2022 data were acquired from Eurostat, the Polish distributor's (PGNiG SA) tariffs, the Energy Regulatory Office and exchange information. The paper fills a research gap in the disparity of prices of natural gas supplied to final individual recipients in the EU. It was established that the sudden increases in natural gas purchase prices on energy resource exchanges translated into a similarly dynamic increase in the household gas fuel prices. The price data concerning Poland were compared to analogous data from other EU member states. It was established that in the period between the first half of 2021 and the first half of 2022, gas prices in the EU increased by over 34% on average (maximum of 150%). It was concluded that the household natural gas prices in Poland, established in the officially approved distribution tariffs of PGNiG SA, are substantially affected by two factors: energy resource purchase prices on the Polish Power Exchange (TGE), and purchase prices on foreign markets. The main reason for price increases was the unforeseen substantial changes in the conditions of conducting business activity by PGNiG SA in terms of gas fuel trading, resulting from the increase in high-methane natural gas purchase price at the TGE. On the other hand, the increases in purchase price of natural gas imported from EU or EFTA member states by 2021 have moderately translated into increases in prices established in officially approved tariffs. A similar effect of household natural gas price increase has also occurred in other EU member states but was not uniform. The effect depended on the volume of gas production and consumption in the given country, and on the diversity of gas sources that determined the resource's purchase price. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the article is to identify problems related to the siting of wind farms, both those that have arisen as a result of recent legislative revisions and those arising from social developments in Poland. In 2022 a map defining 'exclusion zones' around wind turbines, i.e., areas where residential development was prohibited, was released in Poland. It was only then that many territorial governments realised the scale of the problems generated by the entry into force of the 2016 Wind Farm Act. It turned out that this group of municipalities included towns that might suffer some consequences despite the fact that there are no or few wind farms in their area. The aim of this paper is to identify towns and cities where more than one quarter of the area is land within the H10 zones, where the construction of wind farms is banned, if their distance from the nearest building or from the boundary of a national park is less than ten times the height of the turbine mast. The example of the town and rural municipality of Darłowo shows that in the early phase of their construction in Poland, wind turbines were perceived positively and did not give rise to conflicts. It was only after some time, as existing wind farms started to be expanded and new ones built, that protests emerged. The arguments of the parties to the conflict focused mainly on economic considerations: profits for the municipality versus losses for the residents neighbouring the wind turbines, such as barriers to the development of agritourism. The conflicts were fuelled and prolonged by irregularities in the municipality's planning documents and a poor flow of information about planned investments. In 2022, The Council of Ministers adopted a draft amendment to the Wind Farm Investment Act. This legislation represents a compromise between the opportunities for wind energy development and the needs of local communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving energy efficiency includes a number of measures implemented as part of the greening of the energy industry, which in turn is a prerequisite for the creation of a sustainable energy industry to ensure energy and environmental security for the world. Despite the adoption of the EU directives on energy efficiency, there is still insufficient public awareness in this area in Poland and Slovakia. This is particularly surprising because improving energy efficiency not only brings national and global benefits, but also has a significant impact on the well-being of individuals and households. The main purpose of the paper is to analyze the national policies of Poland and Slovakia, which are based on the European Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency, and which introduce new measures aimed not only at increasing energy efficiency, but also at increasing the well-being of households and individuals. Methods of desk research and content analysis were used. The current situation in both countries is illustrated by case studies that document the administrative process (Slovakia) and the calculation of energy savings (Poland) when using renewable energy sources in the case of family houses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper was to examine whether the COVID-19 epidemic has slowed the fulfilment of one of the core tasks of the energy sector "Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable and Modern Energy for All" (SDG7) taking into account corporate social responsibility. Four research questions and hypotheses were posed, relating to the perspectives of local authorities, the activities of large energy companies, the impact of the epidemic on the implementation of the SDG7 and, in addition, to the understanding of CSR principles from the point of view of ordinary entrepreneurs. A qualitative descriptive analysis based on two reliable databases and a survey procedure (Question 4) was used to answer the research questions posed. The goal was achieved by positively confirming three hypotheses and testing one negatively, relating to COVID-19's slowing role in SDG7 implementation. The analysis showed that the 2020–2021 epidemic in Poland has led to more initiatives in this area, contrary to expectations. However, they were linked to the simultaneous implementation of other SDGs, which distorted their importance for achieving Goal 7. In summary, although energy companies were more active than expected during the epidemic, they had a low contribution to SDG 7. This also applies to local authorities. An analysis of the knowledge about CSR in a group of entrepreneurs from the Lublin district (case study) confirmed the opinion appearing in the literature about the lack of understanding of the concept and the need for its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing impact of consumption on the environment has been attracting much attention from academics for the last couple of decades and has caused inquiries into the antecedents of responsible consumption. Previous studies focused on analyzing different antecedents of responsible consumption in various areas and contexts. However, very few studies investigated the antecedents of responsible consumption in the energy sector, and only a few referred to emerging European countries. The aim of the paper is to examine the effect of environmental awareness on responsible energy consumption. Data for this study have been collected using the survey methodology. A total of 1407 households were selected as a sample for the CAWI methods of gathering data. The territory of the study population is Poland. The methodology of research involves several measurement scales of theoretical constructs. The constructs′ reliability coefficients, as well as discriminant and convergent validity indices, showed an adequate level of measurement quality. Based on reliable and valid latent variables, the comparative analysis of mediated path models with moderated mediation is estimated. Structural causal modeling with d-separation check and sensitivity analysis of indirect causal paths is applied to test the causal research hypothesis under study. The research results confirm the significant mediational role of mobilizing attitude and environmental awareness in explaining relationships between perceived consumer effectiveness and energy efficiency and curtailment behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 21st century, society has been undergoing a technology-driven transformation which heralds a new revolution that has potential to strengthen the position of an individual and community but may also lead to the marginalization of certain groups. The Internet of Things takes advantage of the technology's potential to improve digital competencies and the quality of life in society. The purpose of this paper is to obtain information about the digital competencies and needs of contemporary seniors and pre-senior age people, as well as socially sensitive groups from Poland's rural areas. To strength the level of internet infrastructure in rural areas, power line communication (PLC) systems that utilize high-voltage line(s) between transformer substations are presented as a cost-effective communication tool. PowerLink IP has made PLC systems today more attractive and efficient than ever before. Based on nation-wide representative surveys conducted in deliberately selected groups, we collected information on digital competencies and formulated recommendations pertaining to the structure and contents of an innovative internet portal as regards offering, sharing, and the availability of commercial and social services targeted at seniors and other dependent groups. The recommended portal combines the needs of target groups with interests of entrepreneurs, self-government authorities, and NGOs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy and climate policies play an increasingly important role in the world in the era of climate change and rising energy prices. More often, the importance of the development of the energy sector and climate protection is seen from the point of view of the expenditures that will need to be absorbed in the economy, with the potential for increased energy prices. However, it should be remembered that this is also related to the issue of fuel poverty and the inability to meet basic energy needs by parts of society. The aim of the paper is to assess the importance of macroeconomic policy instruments in reducing fuel poverty, using Poland as an example. It will be examined whether and how the government influenced this phenomenon (directly or indirectly), through which instruments, and which instruments (fiscal, monetary or energy-climate policy) played the most important role in shaping the scale of fuel poverty in Poland, with an emphasis on the role of monetary and fiscal policy instruments. The analysis covered the period from 2004 to mid-2021. The results of the research showed that in Poland there is a lack of policy directly aimed at reducing fuel poverty, and the government affects the scale of fuel poverty indirectly mainly through macroeconomic policy instruments, i.e., fiscal and monetary policy instruments. The main and most effective instruments for reducing fuel poverty in Poland are social transfers. Other instruments that have a statistically significant impact on this poverty rate are the level of tax burdens and short-term interest rates. The analysis also revealed some opportunities for effective fuel poverty reduction policies. It was proven that in addition to fiscal policy, monetary policy, which would stimulate a decrease in short-term interest rates, is also an effective way to reduce the fuel poverty rate in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the changes in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions related to energy consumption in the Polish agricultural sector between 2000 and 2019. Based on the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI), the changes in agricultural CO2 emissions are viewed in the context of changes in six factors, i.e., CO2 emission intensity, substitution of fossil fuels, penetration of renewable energies, energy intensity, labor productivity and number of employees. The analysis demonstrated that total energy consumption declined over the study period; this was related to a reduction in the intake of energy derived from solid fossil fuels (−1.05%), crude oil (−1.01%), electricity (−4.89%), and heat (−1.37%), and to an increased consumption of natural gas (5.78%) and biofuels (0.82%). Furthermore, it follows from the analysis that changes in CO2 emissions witnessed in that period were consistent with changes in energy consumption levels; this resulted from a negligible transformation of the energy mix (largely determined by fossil fuels). Generally, CO2 emissions declined over the study period at a rate comparable (−0.9%) to that of the reduction in energy consumption (−1.03%). In light of the LMDI method, the reduction in CO2 emissions from fuel consumption in the Polish agricultural sector was mainly driven by a reduction in energy intensity and in employment. Conversely, rapid growth in labor productivity was the key factor in increasing carbon dioxide emissions. Compared to these impacts, changes in other factors (i.e., emission intensity, energy mix and penetration of renewable energies) had an extremely small or marginal effect on the variation in CO2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rising fuel prices, changes in energy markets, and concern for the environment make it necessary to develop new solutions and technologies. The development of new technologies brings with it the need to take risks associated with unpredictable consequences, technological immaturity, and other issues. However, without these elements, technological development is not possible. In this study, installations related to two different technologies—Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) and Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)—are reviewed. An Enhanced Geothermal System is a technology for exploiting the energy stored in hot dry rocks. Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage is an important technology for reducing CO2 emissions. The combination of these two technologies in CO2–EGS systems can bring significant environmental benefits. This paper reviews the most important CCUS and EGS systems in the world to form a baseline for similar, future technology investment in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important climate change mitigation strategies is to exploit the potential of individual behavioral changes in order to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the insights of behavioral economics are proving helpful in this regard. This contributes to improving traditional instruments, developing new ones related to choice architecture (nudges), and combining them within behavioral decarbonization intervention strategies. It is important, in terms of their effectiveness and efficiency, whether the instruments of such interventions are supported by citizens. This paper presents the results of a survey of Polish respondents' (n = 1064) reactions to hypothetical nudges regarding the choice of a "green energy" supplier. The main research questions of the study are: how much civic support do these behavioral intervention tools have, and what is the importance of selected factors for their acceptance? The aim of the study is to present nudges as one of the strategies of pro-environmental behavioral change and to analyze selected factors of acceptance of these instruments by the Polish society. There are two main conclusions of the research: (1) Poles' support for the green nudges analyzed is comparatively high, like in other European countries; (2) statistically significant differences in support for one of them are age and individual political party preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production, storage, and use of hydrogen for energy purposes will become increasingly important during the energy transition. One way to use hydrogen is to apply it to power vehicles. This green technological solution affects low-emissions transport, which is beneficial and important, especially in cities. The authors of this article analyzed the use of hydrogen production infrastructure for bus propulsion in the city of Katowice (Poland). The methods, used in the study, included a greedy algorithm and cost methods, which were applied for the selection of vehicles and identification of the infrastructure for the production, storage and refueling of hydrogen, as well as to conduct the economic analysis during this term. The article presented the complexity of the techno-economic analysis of the infrastructure and its installation. The key element was the selection of the number of vehicles to the hydrogen production possibilities of an electrolyser and capabilities of the storage and charging infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses one of the contemporary economy's most challenging endeavors: the energy transition. Specifically, the aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of Poland's energy transition process between 2004 and 2021. A comprehensive approach is employed to analyze Poland's energy transition process, focusing on the effectiveness of implementation through the Energy Transition Effectiveness Index. This methodology incorporates four dimensions, namely energy security, economic considerations, climate impact, and social aspects, each characterized by 22 sub-indices. The research methodology employs a two-tiered approach based on the multi-criteria decision making methodology. The EDAS method is utilized to determine the indices' values, while the CRITIC, equal weights, and statistical variance methods and Laplace's criterion are employed to ascertain sub-indices values and dimension weights, particularly useful for decision making under uncertainty. Moreover, the relationship between these indices, the Energy Transition Effectiveness Index, and Poland's Gross Domestic Product is explored. By evaluating Poland's energy transition effectiveness from 2004 to 2021 and comparing the results with other European Union countries, it becomes evident that the effectiveness varies over time. Despite encountering economic and social challenges during the energy sector's transformation, Poland exhibits positive progress in its energy transition efforts, outperforming certain European Union counterparts. However, there is a pressing need to intensify efforts to curtail emissions and enhance renewable energy utilization. The European Union's support and coordination are deemed crucial in facilitating these endeavors, alongside fostering the wider adoption of best practices among member states. The developed methodology stands as a valuable tool for ongoing evaluation of transformation processes across European Union nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coalbed methane (CBM) is the only unconventional gas in Poland with estimated recoverable resources. The prospects for developing deep CBM have been explored in recent years by drilling deep exploration wells within the depocenter of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. The purpose of this study is to analyze the occurrence and potential for CBM extraction in this area of the basin, which can be considered prospective due to the confirmed presence of significant amounts of gas and thick coal seams at depths > 1500 m. The study examined the vertical and horizontal variability of the gas content in the studied area, the coal rank in the seams, thermal conditions, and coal reservoir parameters. The gas content in the seams, reaching more than 18 m3/t coaldaf at a depth of 2840 m, and indicative estimated gas resources of 9 billion m3 were found. The high gas content is accompanied by positive thermal and coal rank anomalies. The permeability and methane saturation of the coal seams are low, and therefore, potential methane production may prove problematic. However, the development of CBM extraction technologies involving directional drilling with artificial fracturing may encourage gas production testing in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With global shifts towards sustainable energy models, the urgency to address rising fossil fuel prices, military conflicts, and climate change concerns has become evident. The article aims to identify the development of wind energy in Poland. This study introduces an integrated methodology for enhancing renewable energy capacities by selecting new construction sites for onshore wind farms across Poland. The proposed methodology utilises a hybrid model incorporating multiple criteria decision-making methods, such as the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), alongside the semiautomated spatial analysis method using QGiS software (v. 3.32 Lima). The model considers economic, social, and environmental criteria and limitations, offering a comprehensive approach to the decision-making process. It was found that wind farms occupy 460.7 km2 in Poland, with a 250 m buffer around each turbine and a total power capacity of 5818 MW. The results show that an additional 7555.91 km2 of selected areas, 2.34% of the country's area, theoretically offer significant opportunities for wind energy development. The spatial analysis identifies potential sites with promising opportunities for domestic and international renewable energy investors. The study's findings contribute towards achieving national and EU renewable energy targets while offering a replicable framework for informed spatial planning decisions in other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the age of COVID, the regaining of economies appears mostly imperative, and rural areas could play a crucial role in this framework. The question of inhabitants' dispersion and low density, and the exodus of rural people to bigger urban centers have determined an adverse effect on rural development. Rural isolation rises to be a higher order good, delivering a higher degree of security in the pandemic context for those seeking refuge from gatherings of cities. Rural areas provide food, natural environments, and resources that help occupations, development, and wealth trends and preserve cultural heritage. Consequently, rural spaces are vital for several motives and thus it is essential to focus on issue of rural development, especially since lacking rural development does not allow dialoging about development in a regional and/or national perspective. This paper investigates the stakeholders' impact on rural development, by considering the increasing role of stakeholders as well as the specificity of the diverse objectives pursued by these groups. As there are several stakeholder groups, attention was sweeping, defining them in a sectoral way to corporate, sciences, public administrations, and society. Where there was a need to distinguish among these sectors groups of stakeholders in a more detailed way, such identification took place, for example, in relation to social leaders. The analysis of the results of the questionnaire survey performed in 2020 aimed to accomplish the identified purposes of the paper. The online survey using the CAWI method was conducted in southeastern Poland among people representing all stakeholder groups. The outcomes of the investigation indicate the great prominence of business in the development of rural areas being able to generate added value and influence the increase of entity potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to assess the territorial cohesion of municipalities (gminas) in Poland using quantitative data and non-parametric modelling techniques. The full population of 2174 Polish municipalities divided into rural and urban-rural municipalities was examined. The time interval of the study, i.e., 2005–2017, allows us to capture the changes stimulated by the implementation of the cohesion policy, i.e., the programme of socio-economic transformation in Poland, implemented in the programming period 2007–2013. Using the DEA approach, a general decline in the cohesion index value over time was recorded in the period of analysis. The results of estimating autocorrelation measures indicate a progressive tendency to build spatial clusters, where the size of the local administrative unit (municipality), measured by the population potential and spatial location of the municipality significantly affect the cohesion level. It was also found that there are limits of positive influence of the EU income on the possibility of achieving a high level of cohesion, hampered by a limited resource of own funds. The research method in this paper has been empirically validated and can be applied to territorial cohesion studies in other EU countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is much research about the determinants of investments, but there is a shortage of similar studies for Poland. Therefore, the overall goal of the paper is to analyze the determinants of investments made by enterprises from the energy sector as well as their delays in Poland in the years 2000–2019. In this period, a strong growth of investments in energy was observed in the country. In connection to this, the authors set four hypotheses and verified them with the following statistical methods: canonical analysis, linear and causality correlation, autocorrelation and cointegration tests. The paper found that there is a relationship between public consumption and investment spending of small enterprises in Poland. That means that only some macroeconomic parameters are connected with investments. Moreover, the changes in the value of past investments has a negative influence in current investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the extent, scope and importance of financial support for Polish organic farming from 2004 to 2019. The analysis focuses particularly on how the changes in the amount and structure of organic farming payments affected farmers' interest in specific organic crops during three financing periods: the 2004–2006 Rural Development Plan, the 2007–2013 Rural Development Programme (RDP) and the 2014–2020 Rural Development Programme. This paper aims to answer the question of whether and to what extent the organic farming support policy impacted the development trends followed by, and transformation processes affecting, this sector. It follows from this analysis that in the first decade after joining the European Union, Poland implemented a policy of making payments easily available. It was primarily focused on the quantitative growth of organic farming rather than on stimulating supply. As the payments were easily accessible and decoupled from production, subsidy-oriented farmers were additionally encouraged to seek political rent. This resulted in the instability of a large group of farms who discontinued their organic farming activity in 2014. That year, the policy was amended because of the need to improve the allocation efficiency of subsidies and to couple them with the provision not only of environmental public goods but also of private goods in the form of organic farming products. The current support policy opens up greater opportunities for leveraging the potential of organic farming while reaping environmental and socioeconomic benefits and contributing more than ever to sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy security plays a key role in the functioning of societies; therefore, every country should strive to ensure it. The Russian–Ukrainian dispute has destabilised the fuel market in Europe. In particular, the natural gas sector in Central and Eastern European countries (CEEs) has been disrupted. Poland was forced to reorganise its gas distribution from the eastern to the northern direction. Other Central European countries are also actively working towards independence from Russian gas. Certainly, a viable alternative for most CEEs is to access hydrocarbons located in the Eastern Mediterranean. The development of the gas transmission infrastructure between this region and the CEE can strengthen their energy security. This article provides an SWOT analysis showing that the commissioning of a new gas infrastructure for distributing gas from the Eastern Mediterranean to CEEs is important for their energy security and provides the opportunity to disconnect from Russian gas. The research results may be useful for analysts, entrepreneurs, or policymakers interested in the CEEs' gas sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of the paper is to determine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the level of energy poverty in Poland. In order to achieve such a goal, the first part of the article presents the definition of energy poverty and the nature of its measures, as well as the determinants and policies of the state addressing the issue of energy poverty mitigation. In the second part of the paper, the results of research into the level of energy poverty are analyzed and the variables affecting energy poverty in Poland during the pandemic are determined. It was established on the basis of these results that the present pandemic contributed to the aggravation of financial difficulties in Polish households with regard to financing expenditure on energy carriers. It was found that COVID-19 had a negative impact on the average disposable income of Polish households, which, with the increase in prices and expenditure on energy carriers, led to an increase in the proportion of disposable income spent on energy carriers. The most affected have been the poorest households. Moreover, the long downward trend in the level of energy poverty in Poland has reversed. Thus, it has been proved that COVID-19 has contributed to the intensification of energy poverty in Poland. The theoretical and empirical considerations contained in this paper may be a valuable source of scientific data on the impact of the pandemic on household energy poverty, while public institutions may find them a source of useful information, helping to create effective instruments to mitigate energy poverty in the Polish economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the state of development of renewable energy sources (RES) in Poland in accordance with the obligations of European Union energy policy. The EU Member States are obliged to adopt different support mechanisms for the development of renewable energy sources, and in consequence to achieve their Directive's targets. Poland, being a Member State of the EU since 2004, has accepted a target of a 15% share of energy generated from renewable energy sources in final energy consumption, including 19.3% from renewable electricity until 2020. Due to the difficulties with target achievement, the authors found it reasonable to analyze the challenge of RES development in Poland. The article presents energy policy in the EU, as well as the review of measures implemented for renewable energy development. The current state of and perspectives on using renewable energy sources in Poland and in the EU are also depicted. In the article, the authors analyze the relation between reference prices at dedicated RES auctions in Poland and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The paper also provides a description of the renewable energy sources' development in three areas: electricity, heat and transport biofuels. Its main content, though, refers to the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is the most coal-dependent economy and one of the biggest polluters in the EU. In order to alleviate this problem, meet CO2 emission requirements set by EU, and improve the country's energy security, Poland decided to introduce nuclear power to its energy mix. So far, several potential locations for nuclear power plants have been officially proposed, mainly based on technical parameters, but no comparisons of the economic impact of such locations have been considered. Consequently, the main goal of this paper is to compare the national and regional economic effects of investments in nuclear power plants—for both the construction and exploitation phases—in the four most probable locations, which are similarly beneficial from a technical point of view. In order to simulate these effects, the spatial recursive dynamic Computable General Equilibrium model was calibrated until 2050 including agglomeration effects and featuring the regional economies of all Polish regions. The results show that although the construction phase is beneficial for economic development in all four regions, the exploitation phase is good for only one. The economies of the other regions suffer, to a greater or lesser extent, from the Dutch disease. The paper argues that the regional economic effects of such an investment differ significantly, due to differences in the regions' economic structures; hence, they should always be taken into account in the final decisions on the power plants' locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy transformation in Poland, including the need to accelerate the shift away from hard coal and lignite in the power system, has been taking place in the face of the energy crisis. Ambitious climate and economic goals force the development of renewable energy sources, but they require legislative changes for the benefit of socially vulnerable consumers. This is important from the point of view of counteracting energy poverty. Energy transformation is not only a change in the fuel used, but most of all, the path and basis of low-carbon development that changes many socio-economic systems. The aim of this study is to link the development and environmental challenges in the studied subject matter with social challenges. The analyses show that it is necessary to strengthen the use of local energy potential and resources, and to activate local communities. The construction of nuclear power plants is also crucial. The results of the presented theoretical and empirical studies can be the basis for a revision of the energy policy in Poland in the area of the social dimension of the energy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the European Union, the course of the Community's energy and climate policy as well as changes in the objectives and priorities of the Common Agricultural Policy, as reflected, among others, in rural development programs subject to ex ante, environmental and ex post evaluation, should be considered. Individual EU countries are still implementing their own programs focused on improving energy efficiency, energy modernisation and supporting renewable energy, and they also intervene in the energy market on an ad hoc basis, as was the case after the outbreak of the war in Ukraine. This article fits into such a broadly understood research perspective, and its primary goal is to identify the impact of the costs of energy consumption and the reimbursement of excise tax on motor fuels on the operational durability and financial sustainability of 103 farms belonging to the Polish FADN network, which in 2017–2021 implemented modernisation projects under the rural development program. Logistic and linear multivariate regression were used to estimate the strength, direction and significance of correlation relationships. It was found that relative energy costs were significantly negatively correlated with financial sustainability only in the linear model, while the impact of excise tax return was positive but not significant. Thus, an empirical proof of the advisability of a possible public intervention aimed at making farmers' access to energy cheaper was obtained. All public interventions in agricultural energy use should be subject to careful and systematic ex ante, mid-term and ex post assessments based on sound program theory. It is necessary to identify the cause-and-effect chains, in which the regression proposed in the article may be helpful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of global challenges related to climate change and sustainable development, comparing attitudes and infrastructure in the field of electromobility and renewable energy sources in different countries becomes crucial. The question of differences and similarities between Poland and Germany in these areas sheds light on the unique challenges and opportunities that the two countries present to each other. The aim of the study is to understand these dynamics, which can contribute to the shaping of more effective policies and strategies for green energy and sustainable mobility. This study was conducted through a review of Polish and foreign literature, the use of the method of tabular comparisons, and the analysis of a questionnaire that was used. These complex methods combined both quantitative and qualitative analysis, which allowed for an in-depth understanding and comparison of attitudes and infrastructure related to electromobility and renewable energy sources in Poland and Germany. The study revealed significant differences and similarities between Poland and Germany in terms of electromobility and renewable energy sources. Germany shows a higher level of urbanization, a higher share of electric car ownership, and better charging infrastructure, while in Poland there is a strong belief in the key role of renewable energy sources. These findings may have implications for future green energy initiatives and policies in both countries. The study presents a complex picture of electromobility and renewable energy sources in Poland and Germany, showing clear differences in awareness, infrastructure, and attitudes. Germany seems to be more advanced in these areas, while Poland shows a strong commitment to renewable energy sources. These conclusions do not exaggerate the differences, but underline the need for a case-by-case approach to green energy strategies in both countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 21st century brings new challenges related to the rapid development of renewable energy sources. Increasingly ambitious climate targets adopted at the European and global level are stimulating an increase in the share of photovoltaic sources in electricity generation. Unfortunately, the intermittent supply of electricity with solar panels makes this energy much more difficult to use. The production of electricity only during the sunny period forces the need to collect it during the day and then use it at night or during unfavorable weather conditions. Therefore, energy storage facilities are important when producing energy from renewable sources. Their installation increases the flexibility of transmission systems and creates opportunities for stable operation with a large share of renewable energy sources. This article offers an economic evaluation of the use of energy storage for a photovoltaic farm under the conditions of using the prices of the Polish Power Exchange. The period from June 2020 to May 2023 was analyzed. The results in terms of productivity of PV installations from the village of Łęki and prices from the Commodity Energy Exchange in the same period were used. Analyzing the results, it can be seen that energy storage brings additional revenue, especially during periods with large spreads in the value of electricity prices. The use of energy storage also allows for more efficient use of energy from photovoltaic panels. The value of additional revenue from energy storage was particularly evident in 2022, when energy prices peaked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land consolidation in rural areas is greatly influenced by a number of social, agricultural, and economic factors. They extend the time and complicate activities related to the implementation of this project. Land consolidation is a huge investment, requiring a good and up-to-date map. Up-to-date data that reflects reality are the basis for good and efficient land consolidation in rural areas. To improve the creation of a land consolidation project, the most appropriate solution would be to place all the necessary data to create a land consolidation project on "geoportals" websites. Providing data on the websites of geoportals in Poland and Finland in the form of a map portal would enable both visual and substantive analysis of spatial changes in rural areas. Therefore, this article pursues two main scientific goals. The first purpose of this article is to analyze the history and scope of land consolidation in Poland and Finland in order to learn the specifics of land consolidation in a given country. Comparisons and analyses were made on the basis of the authors' experience in Poland and Finland with land consolidation in the areas described. The second scientific goal of the article is to compare the availability of geospatial data in the context of the methodology of performing land consolidation in rural areas, which leads to increased energy efficiency in agricultural production by reducing the need for energy, especially fuel for agricultural machinery. The results from the table with a list of geoportals in Poland and Finland are a summary of the data available for free. Thanks to it, land consolidation contractors around the world will have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with and perhaps use this data when creating a rural land consolidation project. Good land consolidation planning will lead to effective and economical use of rural space. This is part of the 2030/2050 strategy. Reducing agricultural production costs, lower fuel consumption, and a smaller carbon footprint. This is what Poland and Finland are striving for as countries belonging to the European Union. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aimed to analyze the potential amount of electrical energy from biogas energy obtained from animal wastes in Turkey and Poland. Animal waste values were calculated by taking into account the recommended literature values. In determining the biomass energy potential of livestock enterprises in Turkey and Poland, FAO's 2012–2021 data were taken into account. The animal breeds selected as material in this study were cattle, goat, sheep, chicken, duck, goose, turkey, horse, pig, mule and donkey. Considering 10-year calculations, the potential amount of biogas energy that can be obtained from animal wastes for Turkey is 28,845,975 GJ, which is equivalent to 8,105,058 MWh of electrical energy. In Poland, the potential amount of biogas energy that can be generated from animal waste is 13,999,612 GJ, which is equivalent to 3,902,020 MWh of electricity. Moreover, it is estimated that the percentage of the potential amount of electricity to be obtained in 2021 to cover the amount of electricity consumed is 0.303% for Turkey and 0.392% for Poland. For 2021, the amount of economic gains that can be from electricity obtained was also calculated, and it was determined that this value can be 78,650,302 Euro for Turkey and 62,182,435 Euro for Poland. At the same time, it was calculated that the electricity needs of 406,170 houses in Turkey and 171,958 houses in Poland can be met in 2021. As a result, it is thought that the potential electricity to be obtained will contribute to determining energy gains and investment plans for biogas plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A demonstration of the relationship between the share of renewables in gross marginal energy and selected countries' economic growth is the basis of this research. The paper seeks to investigate mutual correlations between renewable energy sources and economic growth for two EU economies and how it influences their fluctuations (increase and decrease). The comparative analysis of results was carried out for less-income Polish and high-income Swedish economies. This research used a regression model to answer the research questions examining the presence of correlations between renewable energy sources in gross marginal energy consumption and economic growth. This study analyzes data starting from 1991 to 2022. The results indicated a positive correlation (statistical significance) between Gross Domestic Product and Gross National Income variables for Sweden (84.6% and 83.7%, respectively) and Poland (79.9% and 79.2%, respectively), which influence the use of renewable energy sources. The findings also reveal that the higher economic growth caused by the use of renewables is observed for the leading countries but at the same time the risk of a greater recession is much more likely than in other countries. These findings would help government officials and policymakers to better understand the role of renewable energy in the economic growth of these countries. This study has contributed to the literature on renewable energy sources and statistical reports under the EU energy sector framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous analyses of the PV market (and the impact of the pandemic on it) have focused on the market as a whole. The literature does not contain analyses of selected services sectors (e.g., catering, hotel services) in terms of the use of photovoltaics. There are no studies that would show in which segments the demand profile for electricity most closely matches the production from photovoltaic installations (not to mention the impact of the pandemic). The authors analyzed selected service sectors (catering and hotel) in terms of the use of photovoltaics before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper proposes a comparative methodology for the use of photovoltaics for self-consumption, including statistical analyses and calculations of the self-consumption index for representatives of various selected services sectors. The highest value of the self-consumption ratio at the level of 52% was shown for cafes and restaurants (during the pandemic). Surprisingly, in the pandemic, the self-consumption rate increased for restaurants and cafes for the same size of installations (compared to pre-pandemic times). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is dynamically changing its energy mix. As a result of this process, solar energy is increasing its share in energy production. The development of the solar energy market is determined by numerous factors. This paper aims to develop a roadmap for further development of the photovoltaic (PV) energy market in Poland. The scope of the research covers five areas of PV technology and market development in Poland: (i) technology; (ii) power grids; (iii) law; (iv) economic conditions; and (v) social conditions. With the use of a Technology Roadmapping Methodology (TRM), for each of the determined areas, several factors were analyzed, and their development paths were described. In addition, the article focuses on technological challenges (regarding PV cells, modules, components, power conversion and monitoring and management system, optimizers, batteries, and other energy storage systems), grid efficiency, recycling, production costs, subsidies, public awareness and education, and the energy exclusion problem. The main result of the research is the roadmap of the photovoltaic solar energy technology and market development in Poland. Further development of the PV market and technology requires parallel progress in all the identified areas. This study offers implications for policymakers, investors, managers, and technology and infrastructure developers regarding their involvement in photovoltaic market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy sector is expected to face fundamental challenges in the near future. On the one hand, it is experiencing a rapidly increasing demand for energy. At the same time, it is subject to the pressure of the climate policy due to environmental issues. For the same reason, the energy sector is forced to undertake costly investments to transform production from black to green energy. The issue of financing has become one of the key problems of the energy sector, especially in those countries in which energy production traditionally is based on fossil fuels, i.e., coal. The paper aims to investigate the impact of corporate governance on the capital structure of companies from the energy industry. We use three proxies of corporate governance quality: institutional investors, the board size, and state ownership and investigate their impact on capital structure. Our findings suggest that the latter two negatively impact debt levels. In our model, we control for financial factors and CEO personal characteristics. We use a Polish setting since transformational problems of the energy sector in Poland are especially visible. At the same time, energy companies in Poland are subject to the strict EU climate policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research work was to examine the hydroelectric potential of wastewater treatment plants by harnessing the kinetic and/or potential energy of treated wastewater for electricity generation. Such a concept encapsulates the essence of renewable energy and resonates with international sustainable development mandates and climate change adaptation strategies. The primary objective was to analyze the performance parameters of the Francis turbine, a key component of this energy generation system. An experimental analysis encompassed model tests on the Francis turbine, simulating varied flow conditions using the GUNT turbine. Additionally, historical data from the Toruń Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) 2018 annual wastewater discharge were employed to validate the findings and shed light on real-world applications. The tested efficiency of the Francis turbine peaked at 64.76%, notably below the literature-reported 80%. The turbine system's overall efficiency was approximately 53%, juxtaposed against the theoretical value of 66.35%. With respect to the Toruń WWTP data, the turbine's power output was highest at 24.82 kW during maximum wastewater flow, resulting in a power production of 150.29 MWh per year. The observed turbine efficiencies were consistent with the previously documented range of 30% to 96%. The turbine displayed optimal outputs during heightened flow rates and maximized production at more frequent, lower flow rates throughout the year. Implementing such turbines in wastewater treatment plants not only aligns with global renewable energy goals but also boasts lower construction costs and environmental impacts, primarily due to the utilization of existing infrastructure. Furthermore, wastewater flow consistency counters the seasonal variability seen in conventional water treatment plants. These findings pave the way for more energy-efficient design recommendations for turbines within wastewater treatment and hydropower plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an approach to locating wind farms based on open-source data, GIS software (QGiS v.3.32 Lima), and multicriteria decision-making methods such as AHP, TOPSIS and Borda. The article aims to check the availability of the most suitable sites for wind farms in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland. After the site-selection process, 704 plots were selected after three stages of exclusion (technical–natural, social, and economic). These plots cover a total area of 32.50 km2, about 0.16% of the region's area. The results show that Podlaskie Voivodeship has the most considerable clustering of suitable sites for wind farm construction in three districts, with a total area of 21.53 km2. The first district is in the southwestern part of the region, with an area of 14.84 km2; the second district is in the southeastern part of the region, with an area of 5.59 km2; and the third district is in the northern part of the region, with an area of 1.1 km2. A selected area of 32.50 km2 for wind farms and single turbines could increase the power capacity by 62% with 131.5 MW. The GIS and multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) methodology is repeatable and can be used for further research in other voivodeships in Poland and other countries. International and Polish investors and renewable energy sources (RESs) developers can use the research results to select new locations for investments that fit their strategy in the local market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal and terrestrial fisheries communities in Europe, often economically marginalised, are likely to face severe impacts as climate change becomes more acute. Although progress on climate mitigation and adaptation from national governments remains slow, local development actions can also address these impacts from the bottom up. In this paper we analyse the Fisheries and Sea Operational Programme 2014–2020 and 36 Local Development Strategies prepared within the framework of this programme for the case of Poland. The strategies, which were prepared by cross-sectoral, area-based partnerships known as Fisheries Local Action Groups, are analysed using a content analysis approach. The aim was to assess the degree to which local stakeholders sought to address the climate challenge. We found that the mitigation of climate impacts and the development of renewable energy did not feature prominently in the analysed documents, suggesting that both central policymakers and local stakeholders in Polish fisheries regions had a low level of awareness about the climate problem and their potentially important role in addressing it. Transformation to a post-carbon society undoubtedly requires additional, targeted support and extensive educational activities at the local level, in Poland and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In December 2019, the European Commission unveiled an ambitious project, the European Green Deal, which aims to lead the European Union to climate neutrality by 2050. This is a significant challenge for all EU countries, and especially for Poland. The role of hydrogen in the processes of decarbonization of the economy and transport is being discussed in many countries around the world to find rational solutions to this difficult and complex problem. There is an ongoing discussion about the hydrogen economy, which covers the production of hydrogen, its storage, transport, and conversion to the desired forms of energy, primarily electricity, mechanical energy, and new fuels. The development of the hydrogen economy can significantly support the achievement of climate neutrality. The belief that hydrogen plays an important role in the transformation of the energy sector is widespread. There are many technical and economic challenges, as well as legal and logistical barriers to deal with in the transition process. The development of hydrogen technologies and a global sustainable energy system that uses hydrogen offers a real opportunity to solve the challenges facing the global energy industry: meeting the need for clean fuels, increasing the efficiency of fuel and energy production, and significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The paper provides an in-depth analysis of the Polish Hydrogen Strategy, a document that sets out the directions for the development of hydrogen use (competences and technologies) in the energy, transport, and industrial sectors. This analysis is presented against the background of the European Commission's document 'A Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate-Neutral Europe'. The draft project presented is a good basis for further discussion on the directions of development of the Polish economy. The Polish Hydrogen Strategy, although it was created later than the EU document, does not fully follow its guidelines. The directions for further work on the hydrogen strategy are indicated so that its final version can become a driving force for the development of the country's economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various environmental policy instruments supporting the development of renewable energy are used on an increasing scale as part of the policy of mitigating climate change and more. In our paper, we examine the influence of environmental policy stringency on renewable energy production in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia for the period 1993–2012 after controlling for gross domestic product per capita growth, CO2 emissions per capita and income inequality. We use the Panel Pooled Mean Group Autoregressive Distributive Lag model to analyze the long-run and the short-run relationship between restrictiveness of environmental policy and renewable energy generation. The results reveal that, in the long run, a more stringent environmental policy has a positive impact both on the increase in the absolute volume of renewable energy production, as well as on the replacement of energy from fossil sources. Our main findings indicate that renewable energy production is positively influenced not only by the stringency of instruments aimed directly at the development of this energy sector, but also by the stringency of instruments with other environmental goals and by the overall level of restrictiveness of the environmental policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]