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As the global transition toward sustainable energy gains momentum, integrating electric vehicles (EVs), energy storage, and renewable energy sources has become a pivotal strategy. This paper analyses the interplay between EVs, energy storage, and renewable energy integration with Indonesia's grid as a test case. A comprehensive energy system modeling approach using PLEXOS is presented, using historical data on electricity generation, hourly demand, and renewable energy, and multiple scenarios of charging patterns and EV adoption. Through a series of scenarios, we evaluate the impact of different charging strategies and EV penetration levels on generation capacity, battery storage requirements, total system cost, renewable energy penetration, and emissions reduction. The findings reveal that optimized charging patterns and higher EV adoption rates, compared to no EVs adoption, led to substantial improvements in renewable energy utilization (+4%), emissions reduction (−12.8%), and overall system cost (−9%). While EVs contribute to reduced emissions compared to conventional vehicles, non-optimized charging behavior may lead to higher total emissions when compared to scenarios without EVs. The research also found the potential of vehicle to grid (V2G) to reduce the need for battery storage compared to zero EV (−84%), to reduce emissions significantly (−23.7%), and boost penetration of renewable energy (+10%). This research offers valuable insights for policymakers, energy planners, and stakeholders seeking to leverage the synergies between EVs and renewable energy integration to pursue a sustainable energy future for Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Responding to the Paris Agreement and climate change mitigation, Indonesia aims to reach net zero by 2060 or sooner. Due to Indonesia's dependence on coal and growing consumption, alternative sources of clean energy are imperative for meeting its rising energy needs and reducing energy-related greenhouse gas emissions to achieve the energy transition. This project aims to examine Indonesia's opportunities and potential to achieve low carbon ambition in the energy sector and identify alternative pathways for the energy transition in Indonesia. In this study, the open-source energy modelling system (OSeMOSYS), which is a long-term energy system modelling tool, is employed to compare electricity generation, investment, and carbon dioxide emissions between business-as-usual and five alternative scenarios. Six scenarios, including business as usual, least-cost, two coal-phrase out and two net zero aligned with national climate targets and optimal scenarios, were simulated across different target years. The results show that the net zero (NZ) scenario is more cost-effective and emits fewer greenhouse gases than the other scenarios in meeting Indonesia's future energy demand. However, achieving net zero by 2050 (NZ50) results in significantly lower CO2 emissions (10,134 MtCO2), which is less than half of the emissions in the net zero by 2060 (NZ60) scenario (16,849 MtCO2) at a similar cost (6229 and 6177 billion USD, respectively). This paper's insights emphasise that large-scale renewable energy deployment and coal retirement are critical pathways to reaching carbon neutrality and achieving the energy mix transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raising the electrification ratio to 100% is still a formidable challenge in Indonesia, especially in the remote areas of the eastern part of the archipelago. A DC microgrid system is one of the most viable solutions to increase the electricity supply in remote areas, taking advantage of various renewable energy sources that are located near the rural load centers. A DC–DC power converter for a rural DC microgrid system needs to have a high voltage gain to facilitate the power conversion from low-voltage PV output to a high-voltage DC microgrid bus, a very low input ripple current to help maintain the PV or battery lifetime, and be highly modular for ease of transport and assembly. Many topologies have been proposed to obtain high voltage gain, very low ripple current, and modularity. However, they usually use either bulky and lossy magnetic components, are sensitive to component parameter variance and need special voltage-balancing techniques, or have different component ratings for their multilevel configuration which weakens the modularity aspect. This paper proposes a new modular multilevel DC–DC converter that is very suitable for rural DC microgrid applications based on a modified buck–boost topology. The proposed converter is easily stackable to achieve high voltage gain and does not require any voltage balancing techniques, thus enhancing the modularity characteristics and simplifying its control method. Moreover, the ripple current can be reduced by employing a multiphase configuration. This converter can also facilitate bidirectional power flow to serve as a battery charger/discharger. A comprehensive analysis of voltage gain and ripple current are presented to explain the inner workings of this converter. Finally, the performance of this converter is verified through simulation and experiment, showing the converter's modularity, bidirectional power capability, and potential to achieve voltage gain and ripple-current requirements of the DC microgrid system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global trade and transportation sectors heavily rely on the maritime industry. Still, its dependence on fossil energy sources poses significant environmental challenges and leads to unstable fuel prices that affect the cost of goods transported by sea. This paper aims to evaluate the viability of seaports as energy-intensive entities and explore the feasibility of implementing a Nuclear-Renewable Hybrid Energy System (NRHES). The study presents a case study of the Tanjung Priok Port in Indonesia, focusing on estimating energy consumption, emissions, and the potential impact of carbon taxation on seaport operations. By quantifying these factors, the research provides insights into the energy requirements, environmental effects, and potential costs associated with seaport carbon taxation. A comprehensive analysis of the technical and economic feasibility of implementing an NRHES in the seaport case study is conducted, determining the optimal sizing and composition of components, considering the proportion of nuclear and renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the economic analysis takes into account energy expenses, net present value, cash flow, return on investment, and internal rate of return. The objective of these findings is to provide decision-makers with insights into the advantages and obstacles associated with implementing an NRHES, ultimately contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable future for the maritime sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme weather conditions and natural disasters (ND) are the main causes of power outages in the electric grid. It is necessary to strengthen the electrical power system's resilience during these catastrophic occurrences, and microgrids may be seen as the best way to achieve this goal. In this paper, two different energy system scenarios were proposed for increasing the resiliency of the electric power system during random outages. In the first scenario, a diesel generator (DG) was used to deliver energy to key loads during grid disruptions, in conjunction with a utility electric grid (UEG) and local electric load (ELL). A grid-connected ad hoc microgrid (MG) with a photovoltaic (PV) system, a battery energy storage (BES) system, and local electric loads made up the second scenario. The PV system and the BES system were used to supply the key loads with electricity during the outage. The major aim of this research was to compare the two resilient-based systems from the perspectives of technology, economics, and the environment. Given that it requires greater resilience than the other loads during severe weather, a hospital load on Indonesia's Lombok Island was chosen as the critical load. The objective function considers the system's predefined constraints to reduce the overall net present cost (NPC) and the cost of energy in order to maximize the system resilience (COE). The Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources (HOMER) Grid simulated a 3-day outage in August 2021, and the results demonstrated that the resiliency enhancement for both scenarios was nearly identical. The first scenario resulted in fewer CO2 emissions; however, the second scenario delivered lower operating costs and COE. The simulation's findings showed that system 1 created an annual emission of 216.902 kg/yr while system 2 only produced an emission of 63.292 kg/yr. This study shows that since RES-based MGs don't burn fossil fuels to generate power, they are more environmentally friendly resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has an increasing electricity demand that is mostly met with fossil fuels. Although Indonesia plans to ramp up Renewable Energy Technologies (RET), implementation has been slow. This is unfortunate, as the RET potential in Indonesia might be higher than currently assumed given the archipelago's size. However, there is no literature overview of RET potentials in Indonesia and to what extent they can meet current and future electricity demand coverage. This paper reviews contemporary literature on the potential of nine RET in Indonesia and analyses their impact in terms of area and demand coverage. The study concludes that Indonesia hosts massive amounts of renewable energy resources on both land and sea. The potentials in the academic and industrial literature tend to be considerably larger than the ones from the Indonesian Energy Ministry on which current energy policies are based. Moreover, these potentials could enable a 100% renewables electricity system and meet future demand with limited impact on land availability. Nonetheless, the review showed that the research topic is still under-researched with three detected knowledge gaps, namely the lack of (i) economic RET potentials, (ii) research on the integrated spatial potential mapping of several RET and (iii) empirical data on natural resources. Lastly, this study provides research and policy recommendations to promote RET in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study described in this paper uses direct evidence from processes applied for the developing economy of Indonesia, as it defines the trajectory for its future energy policy and energy research agenda. The paper addresses the research gap to make explicit the process undertaken by key stakeholders in assessing and determining the suitability, feasibility, and dynamics of the renewable energy sector. Barriers and enablers that are key in selecting the most suitable renewable energy sources for developing economies for the renewable energy development have been identified from extensive analyses of research documents alongside qualitative data from the Focus Group Discussions (FGD). The selected FGD participants encompass the collective views that cut across the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental aspects of renewable energy development in Indonesia. The information gained from the FGD gives insights into the outlook and challenges that are central to energy transition within the country, alongside the perceptions of renewable energy development from the influential stakeholders contributing to the process. It is notable that the biggest barriers to transition are centred on planning and implementation aspects, as it is also evident that many in the community do not adhere to the same vision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Indonesia's electrification ratio reached 99.2% in 2020, it has shown stagnating electrification since 2018. This is because most of the remaining areas that need to be electrified are remote and have unique characteristics that hamper implementation of microgrids for providing energy access. Furthermore, not only the deployment but also the long-term sustainability of microgrids is crucial for ensuring continuity of energy access. This paper aims to investigate the scaling and sustainability challenges of remote microgrid development in Indonesia by analyzing microgrids in the Maluku and North Maluku provinces. This study is a two-part publication; the first part focuses on identifying challenges in Indonesia's remote microgrid development, while the second part focuses on potential technology solutions. In the first part, an assessment of energy access within a multi-tier framework was conducted, which was then analyzed using a multi-dimensional (institutional, social, technical, economic, environmental, and policy) approach adapted from the literature. The framework was expanded by mapping the challenges onto specific phases of the microgrid development, which is intended to be helpful for the parties involved in specific phases. It is shown that the challenges related to unclear land status, lack of social engagement, preliminary survey, technical and practical knowledge, and O&M procedures—especially for remote microgrids with renewable energy sources—are the most prominent issues. Additionally, issues caused by electrical events and environmental conditions such as relatively humid and high-temperatures, and uncontrolled vegetation, rodents, insects, and lizards are often found. Furthermore, a high-level technological outlook to address some of these issues is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we conclude that Indonesia has vast potential for generating and balancing solar photovoltaic (PV) energy to meet future energy needs at a competitive cost. We systematically analyse renewable energy potential in Indonesia. Solar PV is identified to be an energy source whose technical, environmental and economic potential far exceeds Indonesia's present and future energy requirements and is far larger than all other renewable energy resources combined. We estimate that electricity consumption in Indonesia could reach 9000 terawatt-hours per year by 2050, which is 30 times larger than at present. Indonesia has abundant space to deploy enough solar to meet this requirement, including on rooftops, inland reservoirs, mining wasteland, and in combination with agriculture. Importantly, Indonesia has a vast maritime area that almost never experiences strong winds or large waves that could host floating solar capable of generating >200,000 terawatt-hours per year. Indonesia also has far more off-river pumped hydro energy storage potential than required for balancing solar generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In early 2020, Indonesia implemented the biodiesel 30 (B30) program as an initiative to reduce Indonesia's dependency on fossil fuels and to protect Indonesia's palm oil market. However, palm oil has received international criticism due to its association with harmful environmental externalities. This paper analysed whether an investment in palm oil-based biofuel (POBB) provides Indonesia with the ability to achieve its environmental and financial goals. In this research, we performed a meta-analysis on biofuel energy return on investment (EROI) by examining 44 biofuel projects using ten types of biofuel feedstocks from 13 countries between 1995 and 2016. Results showed an average EROI of 3.92 and 3.22 for POBB and other biomass-based biofuels (OBBB), respectively. This shows that if only energy inputs and outputs are considered, biofuels provide a positive energy return. However, biofuels, including those from palm oil, produce externalities especially during land preparation and land restoration. We also compared these EROI biofuel results with other renewable energy sources and further analysed the implications for renewable energies to meet society's energy demands in the future. Results showed that biofuel gives the lowest EROI compared to other renewable energy sources. Its EROI of 3.92, while positive, has been categorised as "not feasible for development". If Indonesia plans to continue with its biofuel program, some major improvements will be necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to assess the feasibility of achieving Indonesia's net-zero emissions target by 2060 through a model of future power generation using renewable energy sources using the Low Emissions Analysis Platform (LEAP) software. There are five projected power generation scenarios in this research: the reference (REF) scenario, the conservative (CON) scenario, the moderate (MOD) scenario, the progressive (PRO) scenario, and the advanced (ADV) scenario. The availability of renewable energy technology differentiates each scenario. The ADV scenario, which utilizes nuclear power and energy storage, achieves the 100% renewable energy target by 2060 at the lowest total cost. However, the costs of CON and MOD are not significantly higher. Indonesia should decommission existing fossil fuel power plants and construct more renewable energy power plants to achieve the net-zero emissions target. Based on the simulation, biomass energy is the least favorable type of energy. Solar becomes an option only when other renewable energies are at their maximum potential capacity. Furthermore, nuclear energy and energy storage is essential for Indonesia to achieve the renewable target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among developing countries in Asia, Indonesia has realized the importance of transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources such as solar power. Careful consideration must be given to the strategic placement of solar power installations to fully leverage the benefits of solar energy. This study proposes a methodology to optimize the site selection of solar power plants in Indonesia by integrating Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (F-AHP), and Fuzzy Measurement of Alternatives and Ranking according to Compromise Solution (F-MARCOS) models. The proposed methodology considers quantitative and qualitative criteria to evaluate potential locations for solar power plants. In the first stage, DEA is used to identify the most efficient locations based on quantitative measures such as solar radiation, land availability, and grid connectivity. In the second stage, qualitative factors such as technological, economic, environmental, and socio-political aspects are evaluated using F-AHP to prioritize the most important criteria for site selection. Finally, F-MARCOS ranks potential locations based on the selected criteria. The methodology was tested using data from Indonesia as a case study. The results show that the proposed hybrid model optimizes Indonesia's solar power plant site selection. The optimal locations can contribute to a cost-effective long-term renewable energy supply nationwide. The findings from this study are relevant to policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers interested in renewable energy development and site selection. However, to promote sustainable solar energy development, governments and local authorities must also enact supportive policies and mechanisms that encourage the adoption and growth of renewable energy technologies in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By 2025, biogas is estimated to become a larger part of Indonesia's energy mix. Biogas is a renewable energy source that also has economic and environmental advantages. Domestic biogas generation has been embraced in Indonesia as a response to the country's energy security concerns in rural areas. Since the 1970s, 48,038 biogas plants have been built in the region. To fully develop this technology, Indonesia must discontinue relying on fossil fuels and substitute current fossil-fuel-based energy. This article provides an overview of renewable technology in Indonesia, as well as addressing domestic energy demands and referring to existing literature on the socio-technical and socio-economic barriers to biogas adoption in Indonesia. Based on a rigorous review of 71 publications published in Web of Science (WoS) between 2010 and 2021, this study explores existing barriers for biogas adoption by summarizing the current literature from technical, economic, social and environmental perspectives. Biogas adoption is a complex process with many interwoven components. Therefore, this research addresses a gap in the strategic planning and implementation process, providing policymakers with pathways to eliminate bottlenecks in renewable energy planning. Recommendations for future research are also proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzed the role of low-carbon energy technologies in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of Indonesia's energy sector by 2030. The aim of this study was to provide insights into the Indonesian government's approach to developing a strategy and plan for mitigating emissions and achieving Indonesia's emission reduction targets by 2030, as pledged in the country's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution. The Asia-Pacific Integrated Model/Computable General Equilibrium (AIM/CGE) model was used to quantify three scenarios that had the same socioeconomic assumptions: baseline, countermeasure (CM)1, and CM2, which had a higher emission reduction target than that of CM1. Results of the study showed that an Indonesian low-carbon energy system could be achieved with two pillars, namely, energy efficiency measures and deployment of less carbon-intensive energy systems (i.e., the use of renewable energy in the power and transport sectors, and the use of natural gas in the power sector and in transport). Emission reductions would also be satisfied through the electrification of end-user consumption where the electricity supply becomes decarbonized by deploying renewables for power generation. Under CM1, Indonesia could achieve a 15.5% emission reduction target (compared to the baseline scenario). This reduction could be achieved using efficiency measures that reduce final energy demand by 4%; This would require the deployment of geothermal power plants at a rate six times greater than the baseline scenario and four times the use of hydropower than that used in the baseline scenario. Greater carbon reductions (CM2; i.e., a 27% reduction) could be achieved with similar measures to CM1 but with more intensive penetration. Final energy demand would need to be cut by 13%, deployment of geothermal power plants would need to be seven times greater than at baseline, and hydropower use would need to be five times greater than the baseline case. Carbon prices under CM1 and CM2 were US$16 and US$63 (2005)/tCO2, respectively. The mitigation scenarios for 2030 both had a small positive effect on gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the baseline scenario (0.6% and 0.3% for CM1 and CM2, respectively). This is mainly due to the combination of two assumptions. The first is that there would be a great increase in coal-fired power in the baseline scenario. The other assumption is that there is low productivity in coal-related industries. Eventually, when factors such as capital and labor shift from coal-related industries to other low-carbon-emitting sectors in the CM cases are put in place, the total productivity of the economy would offset low-carbon investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of new and renewable energy sources explicitly based on biomass needs to be increased to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. One of the potential biomasses of plantation waste in Indonesia that can be utilized is oil palm plantation waste in the form of fronds and trunks that are converted with multi-stage downdraft gasification technology. This study aimed to conduct a technical analysis, economic analysis, investment risk analysis, social analysis, and an environmental impact assessment of power plants fueled by oil palm plantation waste. The method used was the upscaling of a prototype of a 10 kW power plant to 100 kW. The results showed that it was technically and economically feasible to apply. The economic indicators were a positive NPV of USD 48.846 with an IRR of 9.72% and a B/C ratio of 1.16. The risk analysis predicted a probability of an NPV 49.94% above the base case. The study of the social aspects suggested that the construction of power plants has a positive impact in the form of increased community income and the growth of new economic sectors that utilize electricity as a primary source. An analysis of the environmental effects is critical so that the impacts can be minimized. Overall, the construction of small-scale power plants in oil palm plantations is worth considering as long as it is carried out following the applicable regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combatting climate change necessitates a substantial global increase in renewable electricity capacity. Many low-income and lower-middle-income countries suffer from unfavorable green financing conditions. Fifteen of these countries possess substantial natural gas reserves. To overcome green financing constraints in such countries, we propose an integrated energy contract that awards a renewable energy project in parallel with an upstream natural gas project to interested energy companies. The state returns from the natural gas project provide a guarantee for renewable energy investments, reducing their associated risks. We conduct Monte Carlo simulations for each of the targeted countries after populating the input parameters for the upstream natural gas and renewable energy projects, including forecasting country-specific natural gas prices. When accounting for 10% of their existing natural gas reserves in the proposed contract, Nigeria, Myanmar, and Indonesia can achieve more than 60% of their 2030 renewable energy target capacity additions while countries with low access to electricity can significantly upscale their installed capacities. The guarantee mechanism provides protection levels exceeding 96% on renewable energy investments. The proposed contract enables the considered countries to increase their renewable energy capacities while inducing economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]