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Highlights • Development of a heat exchanger semi-empirical model accounting for frost formation. • Experimental validation of the HX model in partially frost regime. • Frost control strategies numerically implemented and compared. • Strategies lead to trade-offs between ventilation quality and energy consumption. Abstract This paper tackles the issue of frost formation in air-to-air heat recovery devices dedicated to single room ventilation by means of both numerical simulations and experimental approaches. In such heat exchangers, it is commonly known that the formation of a frost layer on the surface generates an additional thermal resistance and a flow section reduction, which leads to an overall degradation of the overall unit performance. This paper proposes a three-zone model, considering a dry, a wet and a frost zone, by determining the location of moving boundaries. Each zone is handled independently and the relative proportion of each zone is determined by means of the exchanger wall temperature. Besides this frost model, a defrost model is also envisaged. Once validated with experimental data collected on a U-flow-type heat exchanger, the developed model is used to implement different strategies to reduce or prevent frost formation in the exchanger. Based on three different criteria, these strategies are compared with each other to evaluate their benefits and drawbacks. The criteria give information on the energy efficiency of the ventilation, on the air renewal quality and on the pressure balance between the inside and the outside of the building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlight • New on/off controller for residential applications validated using minute-level field data. • On/off controller improves the HVAC accuracy around 19% in terms of NMBE. • On/off cycling makes the operation and associated energy use more realistic. Abstract Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems are sized using design conditions, conditions that occur only a small percentage of time each year. As a result, HVAC systems frequently operate at part-load conditions since their capacity is larger than necessary except in the most extreme weather conditions. Most HVAC systems for residential and small commercial buildings in the U.S. use on/off controls, however, most energy modeling software tools do not simulate the on/off nature of this type of HVAC controls. This paper presents the development and validation of an on/off controller for residential applications in EnergyPlus using a custom EMS (energy management system). This controller is validated using minute-level field data collected for a house located in Sacramento, California with simulated occupancy and internal loads. The results obtained from EnergyPlus with and without the use of the developed on/off controller are also compared. The application of the developed on/off controller improves the HVAC energy use results accuracy around 19% in terms of the Normalized Mean Bias Error (NMBE) at the one-minute level compared to the results without the application of the on/off controller. It also makes the nature of operation and associated energy use signal of the HVAC system more realistic in terms of the on/off nature of the residential direct expansion coils. Furthermore, in this paper, the accuracy improvement of the results dominated by the internal loads is investigated by applying the one-minute schedule compared to the usual hourly schedules for the internal thermal loads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical validation and code-to-code comparison of more than one building simulation tool has seldom been done in literature. Therefore this paper presents the first detailed comparison of 1D building energy simulation tools with 3D CFD simulation and measurement data from a test bed (Test-Box), exposed to natural environmental conditions. Dymola (library: IDEAS), EnergyPlus, IDA ICE and TRNSYS –four commonly used tools– were selected for comparison against highly accurate real measurement data and dynamic CFD results. This paper evaluates the performance of mentioned above 1D simulation tools and in particular their implemented Thermally Activated Building Systems (TABS) models. The mean error, RMSE, standard deviation and maximal error for the room air, the ceiling surface and concrete temperature of the Test-Box model results are acceptable for all tools. The time course of the room air temperature follows the measurement data relatively well for all four tools. However, the negative bias (Dymola -0.92 K, EnergyPlus -2.18 K, IDA ICE -0.37 K and TRNSYS -1.13 K) indicates a general overestimation for all tools. Furthermore, the paper reflects the properties of simulation tools regarding the modelling language, GUIs, co-simulation capabilities and their recommended field of application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of a changing climate, a growing number of construction firms are adopting carbon reduction targets on individual projects and across their portfolios. In the wake of the Paris Agreement, some firms are seeking a means of aligning their targets with sectoral, national and international mitigation commitments. There are numerous ways by which such an alignment can be achieved, each requiring different assumptions. Using data from the UK construction industry, this paper reviews current company commitments and progress in carbon mitigation; analyses the unique challenges in aligning construction targets, and presents a series of possible sectoral decarbonisation trajectories. The results highlight the disparity between current company targets and the range of possible trajectories. It is clear that a cross-industry dialogue is urgently required to establish an appropriate response that delivers both a widely-accepted target trajectory and a plan for its delivery. This paper is intended to stimulate and support this necessary debate by illustrating the impact of different methodological assumptions and highlighting the critical features of an appropriate response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the results of experimental tests and computer simulation modelling aimed at evaluating the performance of an electrochromic (EC) window with respect to solar radiation control and the relative impact on the energy consumption of buildings of the residential type for two typical Italian climates. The research is carried out by a test-cell equipped with a small area EC double glazing unit and by a simulation program of buildings’ energy behaviour in transient regime. The experimental results show that EC devices which modulate solar radiation mainly by absorption, like the one investigated in this paper, generate secondary solar heat gains which entails a 20% decrease of the maximum potential energy flux reduction. Also, this effect could rise the temperature of the internal glass pane of the glazing to levels for which risk of thermal discomfort for the occupants may occur. The computer simulation modelling involves a residential building unoccupied during a large fraction of daytime in weekdays. The savings potential of the investigated EC window are calculated relative to a conventional clear float double glazing unit. Results show that the EC glazing may lead to a considerable decrease of the cooling energy demand (and of the total building energy consumption) in cooling dominated climates. The energy saving benefits become less marked in heating dominated climates and, for low values of the window-to-wall ratio, can be overcame by the increase in lighting and heating energy requirements that results in an increase of the total building energy demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moisture buffering of building materials has a significant impact on the building's indoor humidity, and building energy simulations need to model this buffering to accurately predict the humidity. Researchers requiring a simple moisture-buffering approach typically rely on the effective-capacitance model, which has been shown to be a poor predictor of actual indoor humidity. This paper describes an alternative two-layer effective moisture penetration depth (EMPD) model and its inputs. While this model has been used previously, there is a need to understand the sensitivity of this model to uncertain inputs. In this paper, we use the moisture-adsorbent materials exposed to the interior air: drywall, wood, and carpet. We use a global sensitivity analysis to determine which inputs are most influential and how the model's prediction capability degrades due to uncertainty in these inputs. We then compare the model's humidity prediction with measured data from five houses, which shows that this model, and a set of simple inputs, can give reasonable prediction of the indoor humidity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to vertically thermal stratification in indoor spaces, the cooling load calculation is always a challenge in the design of stratified air distribution systems (STRAD), which in turn is crucial to determine the supply air flow rate and the cooling load to be removed by the air conditioning system. In this paper, several cooling load calculation methods, developed in the past 20 years and focused on STRAD systems, were briefly reviewed. It attempts to clarify these methods in terms of their advantages, limitations and suitable ranges of applications. Furthermore, series of numerical simulations with a total number of 56 cases were conducted, and the applications of a novel cooling load calculation method in STRAD systems were investigated. The reliability of the method was validated for STRAD systems with separated locations of return and exhaust grilles, when adopted in three typical spaces with different building heights, namely a small office, a large terraced classroom and a terminal building. Databases of effective cooling load factors ( ECLF i ) for different heat sources distributed in the three spaces were obtained and presented, which can be conveniently used to calculate cooling loads. In addition, the influences of return grill height on the occupied zone cooling load as well as the energy saving potentials of STRAD systems were also clarified. The results presented in this paper are helpful for the design and optimization of STRAD systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to obtain satisfactory effect of air conditioning and ventilation, the floor–supply displacement ventilation has widely applied in many civil buildings. Swirl diffusers mounted on the floor are widely used to provide fresh air into the occupied zone in the floor–supply displacement ventilation system. This paper studied the air distribution performance of swirl diffuser by 2D-PIV (particle image velocimetry). The experiment was implemented in a full-scale room to achieve reliable data of swirl diffusers. Flow visualizations have been carried out to determine the shape of the swirl jet. The whole velocity field was measured by 2D-PIV system, which is very useful to analyze air distribution above the swirl diffuser. With the aid of the flow visualizations and PIV test technology, the macro and micro structure of the air flow above the swirl diffuser is specified in more detail. Moreover, the centerline velocity decay coefficient (K value) and entrainment ratio were obtained. The research work of this paper provides detailed experimental data of air flow above the swirl diffuser, which provide the reference for selection of air terminal devices and a basis for follow-up numerical simulation study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigated the cooling performance of a high-efficiency dew-point evaporative cooler with optimised air and water flow arrangement using the combined experimental and numerical simulation method. The experimental results showed that the wet-bulb efficiency of the dew-point evaporative cooler was increased by 29.3% and COP was increased by 34.6%, compared to the existing commercial dew point air cooler of the same capacity. An improved two-dimensional, multi-factor engaged numerical model which can scale up and optimize the size and capacity of the cooler was developed. The numerical predictions agreed well with the experimental results, indicating that the cooling rate of the dew-point evaporative cooler is influenced by the dew-point evaporative cooler structure. The cooling efficiency of the dew-point evaporative cooler with corrugated plates is more than 10% higher than with flat plates and the cooling efficiency of the dew-point evaporative cooler with the actual flow arrangement is only 62%–67% that of a dew-point evaporative cooler with an ideal counter-flow arrangement. The cooling efficiency can be improved by increasing the channel length and the air entrance length, and decreasing the channel width and channel gap within a reasonable range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many retrofit projects are being carried out in existing buildings to reduce energy consumption. However, the energy consumptions before and after retrofit need to be known in order to evaluate such retrofit projects. Even though the energy consumption after retrofit can be determined through measurement, the energy consumption before retrofit cannot be known. This study is to more easily estimate energy usage prior to the retrofit. Generally, dynamic simulation or regression model should be used to estimate the energy consumption of buildings before retrofit. However, existing regression models have no way to calibrate the model if it is inaccurate. In this paper, we use a clustering technique to improve the accuracy of the regression model. The estimation of energy consumption before retrofit is referred to as “baseline model” and the inverse model is used to create this baseline model. The inverse model is created through monthly data, daily data, and other similar data. In this study, the inverse model was created through daily data and the baseline model was derived from it. The conventional change-point Model and the cluster inverse model presented in this paper were compared and evaluated with the criteria presented through M&V (Measurement and Verification). The results suggest that the cluster inverse model which reflects the characteristics of data is more appropriate when the baseline model is derived from daily data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer simulation for buildings has become affordable and possible in both research and industry during the last decades with rapid progress of computer industry as well as fundamental advancement of computational techniques. This paper provides an overview of such advancements achieved between 1987 and 2014, during which Professor Branko Todorovich served as Editor in Chief of Energy and Buildings Journal. The review, however, was not restricted to this journal only, in order to provide a fair snapshot on overall technique advances. Simulation and computational techniques cover a variety of aspects of building. This paper focuses specifically on six different topics including ventilation performance prediction, whole building energy and thermal load simulation, lighting and daylighting modeling, building information modeling, indoor acoustic simulation, and life cycle analysis of buildings. Major advances in each area are highlighted, as well as the trends for development and application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harvesting daylight for improving building energy performance has become an important issue in recent years. Most energy simulation tools use a Daylight Factor (DF) based algorithm to capture the complexity of daylight behaviors. However, DF has a limitation for fully accounting realistic daylight conditions, and several modifications or integrations with other supporting tools were developed to compensate for this limitation. This paper uses the Kriging method to predict daylight conditions for a whole year, and couples this method with energy simulation tools. Kriging is a group of geo-statistical techniques used to interpolate the value of a random field at an unobserved location from discrete observed values at nearby locations. In previous research, the Kriging method showed promising outcomes; that result was significantly better than current daylight modeling in energy simulation tool, and very close to the results from advanced physics-based daylight simulation tool. However, Kriging also comes with certain limitations that require further investigation. One major hurdle was Kriging’s long computational time compared to current daylight models in energy simulation tools. For this reason, this paper aims to find possibilities to reduce computational time to realistic levels that can be applicable in practice. Furthermore, it proposes a method to integrate Kriging-based daylight model with an energy simulation tool that can plot hourly indoor light distribution. This proposal obtains more realistic results than current energy simulation daylight models, while reducing computational expense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The aim of this research is to investigate the thermal performance of the prototype building to assess overheating in the summer, particularly the long-term heatwave period in the UK. • To understand the impact of energy efficient technologies on occupants' wellbeing and health in order to identify occupants' thermal comfort level in these types of dwellings. • The study adopts a quantitative research design based on indoor monitoring, in-situ measurements and dynamic simulation modelling. • This clearly indicates that due to this prototype house's structural construction material behaviour in a heatwave and its location (southwest facing orientation), it is susceptible to very high overheating risk. • The results found from the monitoring during a long-term heatwave in the summer of 2018 provided strong evidence for overheating and thereby thermal discomfort in many occupied spaces, particularly on the first floor followed by several spaces on the ground floor. Meanwhile, all the occupied spaces appeared to be well above the acceptable thermal comfort benchmark throughout the data collection period. • To calibrate the building performance, as well as the building materials and components adopted in the model, the measured indoor environment data were scrutinised in conjunction with the IES simulation results. Abstract There is growing evidence that terraced houses—thermally lightweight, well insulated, naturally ventilated with three exposed wall surfaces—are at risk of overheating, especially in south-eastern England. The aim of this study is to evaluate the building performance and develop a reliable building simulation, which will be employed in the second phase of the study: developing affordable and feasible passive design strategies to support the energy-efficient building systems of the construction industry. This paper reports on the results from the first phase of the study where a quantitative methodology, including indoor and outdoor environmental monitoring, in-situ measurements and building simulation modelling, was adopted. The performance of a case study was modelled and simulated via employing Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) software suite. The results from the base-case were analysed according to the adaptive thermal comfort of Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) Technical Memorandum 52 guidelines: The Limits of Thermal Comfort—Avoiding Overheating in European Buildings. The spaces studied within the case study house were observed to exceed the acceptable limits of thermal comfort; particularly, the large bedroom within this zone exceeded the upper limit for overheating up to 11 h daily. Furthermore, the results from the monitoring study indicate a high risk of summertime overheating across all the case study settings, especially during short-term peaks in outdoor temperatures. The main reasons for the problematic thermal performance were identified as well-insulated and fully air-tight building fabric, the lack of sufficient ventilation through the living spaces and excessive heat gains through the composite cladding material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • A quantitative comparison of time-use diary and electricity demand data is presented. • Household occupants report common energy-related activities relatively accurately. • Electricity demand data cannot be used to infer use of appliances with thermostats. • Digital activity reporting techniques are recommended for future time-use studies. Abstract Understanding demand flexibility in the residential sector depends on understanding the causal link between household occupants' activities and resulting electricity demand. Self-reported electricity use via time-use diaries is often used as a direct descriptor of occupants' activities and has been integrated into residential electricity demand simulation models. Conversely, smart meter electricity demand data is increasingly used to infer occupants' activities. Underlying both these approaches are a number of unverified assumptions about people's perceptions of their energy use, the accuracy with which they report these activities and the physical operation of electrical devices. This paper carries out a comparison between self-reported energy-related activities and monitored electricity demand in 15 households over a week-long time period, with focus on electric hot water cylinders and heat pumps as appliances with large potential for demand flexibility. This comparison quantifies the extent to which self-reported activity is a predictor of electricity demand and conversely, whether electricity demand can accurately identify occupant activity. Results show that, although there is significant variation across households, self-reported activity tends to be a reasonably good predictor of electricity demand. However, due to the intervention of thermostat-controlled devices, electricity demand is not a good indicator of occupant activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The energy performance of all variable-speed packaged units needs to be evaluated. • Field test and simulation are combined in the performance evaluation. • The evaluated unit has > 30% higher cooling efficiency than most units in the field. • All variable-speed units can save 22%−29% electricity than the code requirement. Abstract Packaged air-conditioning units are widely used in commercial buildings. Most packaged units in the field are equipped with constant-speed supply fans and constant-speed compressors. Many efforts have been made to increase the operational efficiency of packaged air conditioners by retrofitting existing units with improved controls or developing innovative products with advanced designs. This paper evaluates the energy performance of a packaged unit with all variable-speed components, including the supply fan, the compressor, and the condenser fan. Both a field test and energy simulation are used to quantify the potential of energy savings from the variable-speed unit (VSU) against reference units. In the field test, the reference is a six-year-old existing unit. It was determined through monitoring for one year that the VSU had a 31% higher cooling efficiency than the reference unit. In the simulation, a retail building model was used to compare the performance between the VSU and two reference units—one representing existing units in the field and the other representing units meeting the latest energy code requirements by ASHRAE Standard 90.1. Simulation results showed that depending on the climate, the VSU can save electricity consumption (including both cooling and fan) by 45%–54% relative to the first reference and by 22%–29% relative to the second reference. These findings are valuable for building designers and contractors in selecting packaged rooftop units for both new constructions and retrofits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Sensitivity analysis (SA) can be applied to building energy models (BEM) to identify which input parameters that drive the majority of the model output variation. The screening-based Morris method is often applied for this purpose; however, consideration regarding the effect of the user-defined number of levels (p) and trajectories (r) on the obtained results are rare. This paper investigates how the choice of p and r affects the outcome of a SA using the Morris method on a high fidelity BEM. The results indicates that the Morris method was not able to replicate the ranking from the variance-based Sobol' method no matter the choice of r and p. It was, however, able to identify groups of input parameters (parameter clusters) most sensitive to the model output variability, but it required significantly more r than usually applied in studies featuring the Morris method. The reason is that marginal differences in absolute values of elementary effects (the sensitivity indices of the Morris method) for some input parameters may lead to a change in ranking position several times as the number of r increases. Users of the Morris method must therefore not be predetermined on the size of the parameter cluster; instead, they must make a visual assessment of the convergence of the parameter ranking to qualitatively determine the appropriate size of parameter cluster. The final recommendation for future studies deploying the Morris method for SA applied to a high fidelity BEM is to choose p ≥ 4 as it seems to lead the analysis towards a more truthful ranking, and then run simulations in steps of r = 100 when making the visual assessment to determine convergence and the size of parameter cluster. The identified need for more r questions the general notion that the Morris method is a computationally efficient screening method in terms of absolute time use. However, the Morris method is still much more computational efficient than a Sobol'-based analysis if the purpose of the SA is to identify a cluster of input parameters most sensitive to the model output variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building energy models (BEMs) are typically used for design and code compliance for new buildings and in the renovation of existing buildings to predict energy use. The increasing adoption of BEM as standard practice in the building industry presents an opportunity to extend the use of BEMs into construction, commissioning and operation. In 2009, the authors developed a real-time simulation framework to execute an EnergyPlus model in real time to improve building operation. This paper reports an enhancement of that real-time energy simulation framework. The previous version only works with software tools that implement the custom co-simulation interface of the Building Controls Virtual Test Bed (BCVTB), such as EnergyPlus, Dymola and TRNSYS. The new version uses an open standard interface, the Functional Mockup Interface (FMI), to provide a generic interface to any application that supports the FMI protocol. In addition, the new version utilizes the Simple Measurement and Actuation Profile (sMAP) tool as the data acquisition system to acquire, store and present data. This paper introduces the updated architecture of the real-time simulation framework using FMI and presents proof-of-concept demonstration results which validate the new framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupants account for a significant impact on building performance through their interactions with zone level building components. Empirically-derived occupant models, despite their potential to represent occupants’ impact in building performance simulation (BPS), have minimal penetration in design and code compliance processes. Instead, occupants are represented with static schedules or simple deterministic triggers. The objective of this paper is to better understand the influence of assumptions made in representing occupant interactions with building components over a BPS model's energy use and comfort predictions, as well as their ability to promote better design decisions. To this end, the energy and daylight performance of a generic perimeter office space in Ottawa, Canada were evaluated using a set of comprehensive performance metrics. Results indicate that representing dynamic occupant–building interactions lead to different energy predictions from the static schedules. The maximum difference in the total electricity use was for window-to-wall area ratios (WWR) of 20%, which was about 30% higher with the stochastic cases than the blind-open static cases. WWR 60% and 40% generally yielded the lowest lighting electricity use with the static and stochastic cases, respectively. This paper emphasizes the importance of incorporating empirically-derived dynamic occupant models for simulation-aided design and code compliance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to identify the effects of in-pore transport of liquid water and water vapor as well as phase changes on the hygrothermal behavior of earthen buildings. Indeed, one of the main assets used to promote these constructions is their role in moisture buffering hence temperature and relative-humidity quality controlling. However, there is no clear consensus yet concerning the impact of these phenomena on the global energy performance of the buildings. A coupled model is therefore proposed in this paper, based on heat and mass balances inside the earthen walls, in order to clarify this question. This model considers separately the kinematics of each phase (e.g. liquid water, vapor, dry air and solid matrix), in interaction with each other. It also takes into account the impact of pore water confinement on the liquid-to-vapor phase change, in particular on the resulting latent heat released or absorbed. The model is successfully compared to experimental results on instrumented full-scale rammed earth wall subjected to temperature cycles. It eventually allows identifying the singular hygrothermal behavior of earth material by testing the range of applicability of the simplifying assumptions which are commonly made in function of the permeability of the tested material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Daylighting is an important aspect in designing high performance buildings. Many simulation tools have been developed to study the daylighting performance of buildings. These tools primarily use CAD environments for creating architectural models, which are then converted into daylighting models to run on the daylighting simulation engines. Once the architect defines the architectural model in CAD, a simulation expert creates the simulation input file to perform daylighting analysis. Each tool has its own rules that the architect and the engineer have to follow to prepare the simulation input files, and the complexity depends on the tools. Currently, Building Information Modeling (BIM) is widely used in the AECO industries and BIM models are used as a means of exchanging data among different professionals involved in the design and construction of buildings. The present paper discusses the use of BIM for building performance simulations and mainly focuses on how daylighting analysis can be incorporated into a BIM environment, and what challenges and benefits exist in the process of integrating BIM with daylighting simulation tools. The paper presents the development and validation of a prototype to integrate the BIM tool, Revit with the daylighting simulation tools, Radiance and DAYSIM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The requirements concerning energy performance of buildings and their internal installations, particularly HVAC systems, have been growing continuously in Poland and all over the world. The existing, traditional calculation methods following from the static heat exchange model are frequently not sufficient for a reasonable heating design of a building. Both in Poland and elsewhere in the world, methods and software are employed which allow a detailed simulation of the heating and moisture conditions in a building, and also an analysis of the performance of HVAC systems within a building. However, these systems are usually difficult in use and complex. In addition, the development of a simulation model that is sufficiently adequate to the real building requires considerable time involvement of a designer, is time-consuming and laborious (Menberg et al., 2019) [1]. A simplification of the simulation model of a building renders it possible to reduce the costs of computer simulations. The paper analyses in detail the effect of introducing a number of different variants of the simulation model developed in DesignBuilder on the quality of final results obtained. The objective of this analysis is to find simplifications which allow obtaining simulation results which have an acceptable level of deviations from the detailed model, thus facilitating a quick energy performance analysis of a given building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar heating should be recommended strongly for domestic buildings in the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau due to the area's high intensity radiation. In this paper, a novel hybrid solar heating system is presented, that includes a solar kang system, a Trombe wall and a direct gain window. The effects of five combined solar heating operation modes on the indoor hourly temperature for one case domestic building located in the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau were investigated by field measurement and numerical simulation. The optimal operation mode for improving the indoor thermal environment was determined. Furthermore, the effectiveness of each operational mode on the east room was quantitatively evaluated and ranked. The results show that the numerical simulation and field experimental results were well agreed, although there were some differences in specific values. In addition, the results it indicated that a solar kang running all days and Trombe wall running daytime played a significant role in improving the indoor thermal temperature. These relevant findings could provide a reference for solar heating system design and indoor thermal comfort improvement for rural domestic buildings in the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption models play an integral part in energy management and conservation, as it pertains to buildings. It can assist in evaluating building energy efficiency, in carrying out building commissioning, and in identifying and diagnosing building system faults. This review takes an in-depth look at energy-demand prediction models for buildings in that it delves into recent developments in building energy approaches used to predict energy usage. By enlisting current approaches to the modelling of buildings, methods for building energy simulations can be categorized into four level classes as follows: (i) data-driven approaches; (ii) physics-based approaches; (iii) large scale building energy forecasting approaches; and (iv) hybrid approaches. The focus of this review is to target the data-driven approach and large-scale building energy predicting-based approaches. Here the data driven approaches can be categorized by (1) artificial neural network based approaches; (2) clustering based approaches; (3) statistical and machine learning-based approaches; and (4) support vector machine based approaches. From there, the type of data-driven based approach is further grouped by (a) benchmarking models; (b) energy-mapping models; (c) energy forecasting models; and (d) energy profiling models. Large-scale building-energy prediction techniques is then categorized as follows: (1) white-box based approaches; (2) black-box based approaches, and (3) grey-box based approaches. The current study explores first-rate data-driven based approaches about building energy analysis for industrial, commercial, domestic, etc., within a rural and urban setting. This review paper is based on the necessity of identifying points of departure and research opportunities for urban and rural-level analyses of building level energy performance. A variety of issues are explored which include: energy performance metrics; end-use of different building types; multiple levels of granularity; and urban and rural scales. Each technique encompasses a variety of input information as well as varying calculations or simulation models along with furnishing contrasting outcomes that suggest a variety of usages. A thorough review of each technique is presented in this study. This review highlights strengths, shortcomings, and purpose of the methods of numerous data-mining based approaches. A comprehensive review of energy forecasting models that are specified in the literature part is also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the efficiency of a naturally ventilated double-skin façade (DSF) built in a test cell focusing on the airflow and heat convection of the cavity formed by DSF. The study covers measurements of the test cell and their numerical simulation. DSFs have been widely researched worldwide, since they contribute to the thermal performance of the internal environment and to energy savings by eliminating mechanical conditioning systems. For data acquisition, type K surface thermocouples are installed on the wall faces of the test cell and the additional façade, that is, on the inner and outer face of the wall of the test cell and the inner face of the external one. Furthermore, hot wire anemometers are positioned so as to obtain the air velocity in the lower and upper openings of the cavity, which has an air layer thickness of 0.1 m. The results show that the DSF presence contributes to a decrease of the temperature inside the environment because it inhibits the direct solar radiation. Measurement of the faces shows that at 4:00 p.m. the temperature reaches their maximum values. These values are equal to 25.6   °C on the inner face of the façade and 23.6   °C on the inner face of the test cell, while the outdoor temperature presents values equal to 23.1   °C at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing BEPS models which predict energy usage to a high degree of accuracy can be extremely time consuming. As a result, assumptions are often made regarding the input data required. Making these assumptions without introducing a significant amount of uncertainty to the model can be difficult, and requires experience. Even so, rules of thumb from one geographic region are not automatically transferrable to other regions. This paper develops a methodology which can be used to determine useful guidelines for defining the most influential input data for an accurate BEPS model. Differential sensitivity analysis is carried out on parametric data gathered from five archetype dwelling models. The sensitivity analysis results are used in order to form a guideline minimum set of accurately defined input data. Although the guidelines formed apply specifically to Irish residential dwellings, the methodology and processes used in defining the guidelines is highly repeatable. The guideline minimum data set was applied to practical examples in order to be validated. Existing buildings were modelled, and only the parameters within the minimum data set are accurately defined. All building models predict annual energy usage to within 10% of actual measured data, with seasonal energy profiles well-matching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building envelope design has gained importance as a means to reduce heating and cooling demand related to a building’s operational phase. However, in high internal load buildings, such as offices, internal gains can easily lead to overheating. Thermal inertia ( TI ) and night ventilation have a great potential for reducing heat loads and temperature. However, their influence is difficult to predict due to the complex nature of the TI phenomenon, which is related to the interactions of multiple factors such as architecture, building physics and external conditions. Moreover, TI efficacy has often been studied in relation to energy savings or temperature analysis, overlooking other aspects implicated in buildings’ efficiency, such as the embodied energy involved. This paper presents a multidimensional approach to evaluate ventilative cooling and thermal inertia as a sustainable strategy to improve building performances. To that end, several scenarios of night ventilation strategies have been applied to the case study of an experimental double-office room placed in Fribourg (Switzerland). Based on this monitoring, a dynamic software simulation tool has been calibrated and used to analyze the energy savings potential and the life-cycle performance of TI . A new ratio index has been introduced to easily evaluate the life cycle efficiency. The results show the importance of balancing operational and embodied impacts when evaluating a design choice. Although high TI levels have great benefits on reducing the cooling loads, the results are completely different when a life cycle assessment is applied. Natural ventilation coupled with middle levels of TI have been identified as the best strategy to optimize the building’s energy and environmental performances, without compromising indoor temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a study on energy performance of an earth air heat exchanger (EAHE) for buildings in Maghreb climatic context (Oran, Bechar and Adrar cities in Algeria). In order to check the influence of the material, two air conducts (one of galvanized sheet metal and the other in polyvinyl chloride–PVC) are considered under the same geometric conditions (a 20 m conduct length, 120 mm diameter and 2 m burial depth). They are used separately for the ventilation in simple current flow of two adjoining rooms constituting a test cell located at the university campus IGCMO-USTOMB (Oran, Algeria). An experimental device has been set up to measure the temperature at different points (air inlet/outlet air duct). Measurements were run in August 2015, and the monitoring of both exchangers allowed us to evaluate their cooling performance: 35.41% for the Zinc pipe and 58.42% for the PVC pipe. Experimental results were compared to those obtained from the simulation (under the Trnsys 16) and a fair similarity is obtained. In order to optimize the energy performance of the exchanger (EAHE), numerical simulations are carried out by varying different parameters: climate, burial depth, length and diameter of the duct. Other simulations have shown that the energy supplied by the cooling exchanger (EAHE) is more significant in the south of the country (Adrar and Bechar) than in the north (Oran). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase of thermal insulation of existing buildings is considered a fundamental operation for reducing building energy consumption for heating and cooling. Internal insulation systems represents, in some cases, the only possible solution. Historical refurbished buildings represent a typical case when local regulations forbid external insulation placement. However, sometimes designers compute insulated wall thermal conductance disregarding the effect of structural elements employed to fix the insulation layers to existing walls. In the present paper, we analyse a typical internal insulation system made of steel studs fixed to the wall with interposed insulation layers covered by plasterboard. Using previously obtained experimental measurements of the heat flux at the centre of insulation and on steel studs, the validation of a three-dimensional numerical model and a parametric analysis has been carried out. Five cases have been analysed, showing that the main parameter to be taken into account is the radiation heat exchange between the steel studs and the wall, on the contrary, air convection inside the stud resulted less important in evaluating heat transfer. The numerical model has been used to compute a mean conductance of the wall showing that neglecting the steel stud leads to the underestimation of wall conductance by about 20 percent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates application potential of the maisotsenko cycle (M-Cycle) evaporative air coolers in air conditioning systems in moderate climate (Poland is used as an example). Cross-flow M-Cycle heat and mass exchanger (HMX) was chosen as the most representative unit for this type of application. Analysis is based on the computer simulations performed during the peak day in summer (day when the highest cooling loads occur) and assumptions used in Polish standards for air conditioning systems. The obtained results show that evaporative cooling through Maisotsenko cycle has high application potential and allows to generate significant energy savings in compare to the systems equipped with standard heat recovery devices. The most favorable application for the M-Cycle in moderate climate is displacement ventilation, where proposed unit is able to cover almost all energy required by the air conditioning system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses annual energy performance of atrium type hotel building in Belgrade. The objective is to examine the impact of the atrium on the hotel building’s energy demands for space heating and cooling. Integrated approach through numerical simulations that include Belgrade climate data and thermal comfort parameters, indicates an optimal model of hotel building with atrium for this area. Building energy simulation is carried out using EnergyPlus simulation engine, as a basic tool in the process of building energy optimization. The methodological approach includes the creation of a hypothetical model of an atrium type hotel building, numerical simulation of energy performances of several design alternatives of the hotel building with atrium, and comparative analysis of the obtained results. The main task of analysis is to change certain parameters in the particular model (for example, building structure, orientation, etc.) and to observe how the changes influence energy performance of the building. The goal of this research is to show that the atrium contributes to the heating and cooling energy savings in the rest of the building, but also that the atrium itself demands a lot of energy for its air-conditioning. The most sustainable solution should be to cover energy demands for atrium by using the renewable energy sources. In this case, the atrium can contribute to the energy efficiency of the hotel building in Belgrade climatic conditions, thus reducing its negative impact on the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effectiveness of coelostat daylighting systems for enhancing the indoor visual environment of open-plan offices. A coelostat consists of a movable mirror capable of tracking the sun and a fixed second mirror, which, acting together, create a single beam of sunlight for daylighting. A series of computer simulations were carried out using TracePro and Radiance where the relevant IES output (polar candela distribution plots) of the former was exported to the latter for photometric analyses. The results reveal that coelostat daylighting systems can significantly enhance not only the visual environment but also the energy efficiency when sufficient daylight is introduced by simultaneously applying side and top daylighting (ST) schemes. When only daylight admitted through windows is considered, daylight availability varies from 0.12% (at 10 a.m., summer solstice) to 3.19% (at 12 p.m., winter solstice). In contrast, the highest daylight availability of 3.41% is observed at 12 p.m. on the day of the winter solstice when side and top lighting are considered in addition to daylight admitted through windows. Electricity savings of 1.78 kWh are estimated over a period of one hour around noon, that is, a half an hour before and after noon. A comparison between the on-site measured data and simulated values showed that they were in good agreement, confirming the reliability of the computer modeling developed in this work. The approach described here could be extended to analyze daylighting performance of buildings with similar solar features, such as light wells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CFD simulation is a powerful tool to estimate an indoor physical field of interest but it is computationally expensive. The simulation has to be repeated if the environment (e.g., heat sources) changes. In this work, we propose a two-stage physical field reconstruction (TSPFR) approach to directly estimate an indoor physical field without rerunning the CFD simulation. Current methods for physical field reconstruction separately used the observed input parameters of the CFD simulation and the sparse sensor observations. We fuse both of them. Using the principle component analysis (PCA) technique, the physical field can be reconstructed by estimating the PCA components. In this paper, we estimate the physical field in two stages. In the first stage, we proposed a scaled extreme learning machine (sELM) algorithm to train a regression model with which we can estimate PCA components from the observed input parameters and reconstruct an approximated physical field. In the second stage, we correct the physical field reconstructed in the first stage with the sparse sensor observations. We theoretically show that the proposed approach outperforms the current one stage methods. When using current methods, the number of sensor observations cannot be less than that of the dominant PCA modes. We show how the proposed method can reduce the number of required sensor observations. Finally, we provide an indoor thermal map estimation problem to show the effectiveness of the proposed method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The hysteresis is due to the difference of primary nucleation mechanism during heating and cooling. • The PCH is related to the properties of the material itself and the experimental measurement conditions. • The hysteresis temperature is positively correlated with the heating/cooling rate. • The hysteresis effect is more obvious in an incomplete phase transition. • Numerical models of the hysteresis effect of complete and incomplete phase transition are summarized. As an efficient energy storage material, phase change material can be combined with lightweight buildings to reduce the energy consumption of the building envelopes effectively, while it is often accompanied by phase change hysteresis(PCH) and supercoiling (SC) phenomena during the phase transition. SC means that the nucleation does not solidify at the theoretical solidification temperature and needs to be nucleated at a lower temperature. PCH indicates the difference between the melting temperature and the solidification temperature of the phase change materials (PCMs). So far, a lot of research on SC has been done and there is still a lack of research on PCH. On the one hand, the PCH is proportional to the energy loss of the system, the latent heat of PCMs cannot be exploited if PCH is beyond the operating temperature range of the system. On the other hand, when PCMs are combined with building envelopes, the greater the hysteresis temperature, the better the thermal performance of the wall. It's vital to use the hysteresis temperature to improve the performance of the system. Especially, PCMs are equipped in building envelopes, the hysteresis phenomenon of incomplete phase transition will be more obvious because of large temperature fluctuation outside. The hysteresis effect of PCMs in building envelopes is discussed in this paper, the numerical simulation methods and experimental research of PCH are reviewed and analyzed from two aspects of complete and incomplete phase transition. It showed that the PCH should be considered when simulating the thermal behavior of PCMs in building envelopes. The results would be more accurate if two enthalpy-temperature curves (H(T) curve) are used to represent the melting and solidification process, respectively. In addition, the nucleation mechanism of PCH has not been discussed in previous articles and there is no explanation about whether the hysteresis phenomenon is caused by the properties of the material itself or is affected by experimental measurement conditions. Therefore, the related issues are discussed in this paper, it is considered that the PCH is not only related to the properties of the materials but also affected by the experimental measurement conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasement of worldwide population, high-rise buildings of multi-dwelling units have been widely used as a residential building, especially in China, United States and India etc. At present, most of cooking exhaust shafts in high-rise residential building takes the form of central exhaust system. However, the mal-distribution of exhaust flow in central exhaust system often leads to oil fumes reflux and odor migration, which decreasing the performance of kitchen hoods. This study is conducted in a 32-storey residential building which employed central exhaust system. Static pressure and velocity distribution were investigated in central exhaust shaft with uniform cross section. In addition, Computational Fluid Dynamics was adopted to analyze flow characteristics and validated by comparing the simulation results with experimental data. The emphasis of this study lies in the effects of temperature differences and equally spaced operating rates of kitchen hoods on flow characteristics in central exhaust shaft. The results showed that when the temperature difference varies from −12 °C to 30 °C, the locations of maximum static pressure gradually moved downwards and presented a low-high-low distribution. The maximum occurred in the middle-low storeys under different operating rates. This paper is valuable for HVAC engineers to improve the design of central cooking exhaust shafts in high-rise residential buildings, and solve the mal-distribution problems of exhaust flow in central exhaust systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the acknowledged positive effects of vegetation at urban, neighborhood and building scales, there are still only limited comprehensive design tools for multi-scale evaluation of the microclimate and thermal benefits of plants and building-integrated vegetation (BIV) systems. The paper describes a case study in the city of Palermo (Italy) that applied simulation methodology to quantitatively assess the microclimate effects of different neighborhood and building retrofit scenarios where vegetation plays a main role. The simulation workflow moves from a micro-urban to a building scale assessment by linking the ENVI-met software to the building energy simulation program EnergyPlus. The study takes two complementary directions. Firstly, it analyses the influence of plants on urban microclimates to enhance outdoor and indoor temperatures. Secondly, it assesses the benefits of different technical solutions applied to buildings, including BIV systems and windows substitutions, to further improve their thermal behavior. The results of the simulations show a significant reduction in outdoor and indoor temperatures, questioning traditional urban renovation practices and drawing attention to the importance of multi and inter-scale approaches for high-accuracy investigations into buildings’ thermal performances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fault detection has a vital role in the process industry to enhance productivity, efficiency, and safety, and to avoid expensive maintenance. This paper proposes an innovative multivariate fault detection method that can be used for monitoring nonlinear processes. The proposed method merges advantages of nonlinear projection to latent structures (NLPLS) modeling and those of Hellinger distance (HD) metric to identify abnormal changes in highly correlated multivariate data. Specifically, the HD is used to quantify the dissimilarity between current NLPLS-based residual and reference probability distributions obtained using fault-free data. Furthermore, to enhance further the robustness of these methods to measurement noise, and reduce the false alarms due to modeling errors, wavelet-based multiscale filtering of residuals is used before the application of the HD-based monitoring scheme. The performances of the developed NLPLS-HD fault detection technique is illustrated using simulated plug flow reactor data. The results show that the proposed method provides favorable performance for detection of faults compared to the conventional NLPLS method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fast prediction of indoor temperature distribution is valuable to recognize the status and assist in rapid decision making and heat source control. Prediction using a superposition theorem based on the assumption of fixed flow field is an alternative method of performing fast prediction. However, little research revealed the methods’ reliability based on fixed flow field, and previous prediction methods primarily focused on the temperature at a steady state. In this paper, an algebraic expression was established to predict the temperature distribution based on the definition of transient accessibility indices for temperature. The prediction accuracy was mainly verified using a numerical method with 14 cases. It was concluded: (1) the proposed expression can perform fast prediction once the transient accessibility indices are prepared in advance; (2) the fixed flow field adopted in the proposed method should be built by a thermal scenario considering the heat source at a certain intensity, rather than a scenario with no heat source. The accuracy is acceptable for positions outside the heat source area; (3) there is no significant effect of the choice of supply air temperature utilized in building the fixed flow field on prediction accuracy. The research on prediction accuracy is helpful for a reasonable application of the proposed method in real projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the second part of the paper “Simplified method for shading-loss analysis in BIPV systems”. The objective of Part 2 is to apply the simplified method described in Part 1 in order to estimate the influence of partial shadings on the performance of four installed and in operation BIPV systems. The method consists in identifying and quantifying the shading on a surface, relating the fraction of shaded area with the percentage of incident irradiation reduction during the same period, in order to propose a shading index (SI) that represents the energy losses on partially shaded PV systems. SI was validated through the analysed case studies and it was proved to be a convenient way of estimating the PV generation of partially shaded PV systems. This method is independent from the electric configuration and can be used for already installed PV systems, or surfaces under investigation for PV installations, both through manual calculations and also through calculations using dedicated software packages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrical energy storage is an attractive technology for complementing domestic scale Combined Heat and Power (CHP) because when CHP is dispatched to meet the heating load, the storage can reconcile any mismatch between the electrical load and CHP generation. Hybridization of electrical storage technologies reduces the compromise between power and energy density and extends storage system lifetime but necessitates a more complex control scheme. This paper proposes a novel control scheme for a domestic battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system (HESS) for use with micro-combined heat and power (micro-CHP) generation. The proposed HESS controller utilizes the low frequency component of the supercapacitor voltage to generate the battery reference current, which not only allocates low frequency power to the battery but also simultaneously maintain the battery current and the supercapacitor voltage within their predefined limits. The negative effects of the 100 Hz ripple component in the supercapacitor current, such as overheating and increased converter losses have been hitherto neglected in the literature and are addressed here for the first time by adding a 100 Hz band-stop filter in the supercapacitor controller. Simulink simulations and signal hardware-in-the-loop (SHIL) real-time simulations have been conducted to demonstrate the effective operation of the HESS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper the authors present an algorithm that abstracts an arbitrarily shaped set of building volumes into a group of simplified ‘shoebox’ building energy models. It is shown that for generic perimeter and core floorplans the algorithm provides a faster but comparably accurate simulation results of annual load profiles vis-à-vis multi-zone thermal models generated according to ASHRAE90.1 Appendix G guidelines. Envisioned applications range from rapid thermal model generation for urban building energy modelling to schematic architectural design. Following a description of the algorithm, its ability to produce load profiles for a mixed-use neighborhood of 121 fully conditioned buildings for a variety of climates is demonstrated. The comparison yields relative mean square errors in simulated annual building energy use intensity of five to 10 percent compared to ASHRAE 90.1 compliant building energy models while reducing simulation times by a factor of 296. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a novel method to determine building envelope thermal transmittance (known as U-values) and air infiltration rate by a combination of Energy modeling (DesignBuilder and EnergyPlus), regression models and genetic algorithm at quasi-steady state conditions. DesignBuilder is used to develop the thermal model of an office building, including physical building models, materials specification, occupancy schedules, detailed HVAC system and components for energy simulation purposes. Specifically, the simulation was carried out in EnergyPlus at diverse U-values and air infiltration rates to produce a large datasets. Subsequently, the results were used to generate a linear regression model to evaluate the associations of thermal demands with U-values and air infiltration rate. Genetic algorithm was then applied to obtain a set of U-values and air infiltration rate with the minimum difference between field measurement and model prediction. The calibrated U-values and air infiltration rate were employed as inputs in EnergyPlus to model one workday heat consumption. When compared with thermal demand from measured data, the accuracy of the calibrated model improved significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the construction industry has been comprehensively focusing on energy performance of buildings and on achieving higher standards of living comfort. One of the most sophisticated ways to attain both at the same time is (re)achieving building’s climate balance by using bioclimatic design. Therefore, the main goal of this paper was to present a bioclimatic potential prognosis and to show its application on an example of the Alpine-Adriatic region. The bioclimatic potential prognosis was made for 21 characteristic locations. For this purpose, bioclimatic chart plots were made using elementary weather data and additionally, the actually received solar irradiance was precisely considered at every location. The latter was shown to have a large influence on the analysis results. Furthermore, an evaluation of performed bioclimatic potential prognosis was made with simulations of a generic building model using Energy Plus. The generic building model was tested in five selected locations and the heating and cooling demand results were compared with the bioclimatic potential analysis. The results showed that the application of the presented method can indicate which passive solutions should be applied in building design at a specific location in order to facilitate smaller energy usage and consequential higher indoor comfort. In addition, the presented approach can be used in order to incorporate the latest or predicted climate data into bioclimatic potential analysis. The latter has a significant influence on the design of buildings of the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diffuse ceiling ventilation (DCV) is a novel air distribution system that utilizes the suspended ceiling as diffuser for inlet air. The performance and system characteristics have, so far, mainly been tested in laboratory experiments and numerical simulations yielding good results in terms of occupant comfort at high ventilation rates. To supplement these results and study the performance under realistic conditions, a classroom retrofitted with a mechanical exhaust-driven DCV system has been investigated and reported in this paper. The performance was evaluated in terms of air movements and preheating capabilities in the plenum, as well as ventilation effectiveness and thermal comfort in the occupied zone. No evidence for the presence of a fully sustained pressure chamber effect was found though; instead, measurements indicate that the supplied air characteristics changed as function of distance from the plenum inlet, due to cross-contamination with room air and too low pressure resistance in the suspended ceiling. The DCV system performed satisfactory, though, both during quasi-steady-state and under transient conditions, sustaining a fully mixed occupied zone without any risk of draught or discomfort due to vertical temperature gradients. Ventilation effectiveness was comparable to conventional mixing ventilation with indications of displacement effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficient renovation of the existing housing stock is imperative to reduce building energy consumption since the building sector in Europe accounts for an estimated 40% of the energy used from all sectors and more than 80% of the buildings today will still exist in 2020. Following Europe’s energy objectives, the paper investigates, based on the European Union Directives, the current energy refurbishment rates and examines the future energy performance of the Cyprus housing stock, in order to determine if they are adequate in achieving the Europe energy targets. The research focuses on pilot houses in Cyprus, which include dwellings from all typologies as classified, according to the IEE project EPISCOPE. The houses were monitored and based on the collected data and the performed simulations, their current and future energy performance are presented in the form of Energy Performance Indicators (EPIs). From the study, it is observed that with the current trends the national climate protection energy targets are unattainable. This is mainly due to the inadequate rate and depth of energy refurbishment of the existing housing stock and the ineptness of the Directives to address effectively the reduction of the cooling energy needs in the new constructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper shows the results of measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations conducted in the school buildings located in two different climates: Białystok (Poland) and Belmez/Córdoba (Spain). CO 2 concentration in first 45 min met requirements of regulations, but with medium occupation of places in classrooms, then the recommended values were excided. We developed a model for CO 2 level estimation. This model allowed us to simulated the CO 2 concentration for full occupation of classrooms in both countries. In these cases CO 2 concentration would exceed maximum value (1000 ppm) during the first hour. Furthermore required air change rates were calculated: for actual occupation they should be in a range 2.5–5 h −1 to maintain IDA2 and carbon dioxide concentration below 1000 ppm, while in case of full occupation even 6–9 h −1 . Finally, surveys of student satisfaction were performed in situ during the measurements of CO 2 level to obtain the dependence of student comfort perception on this concentration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is known that building performance usually involves different criteria such as the energy consumption, thermal comfort, thermal loads and internal temperatures, which can make its assessment more complex. Thus, this paper aims to describe a decision-making process to improve some criteria related to the energy efficiency of residential buildings considering a multicriteria approach. Computer simulation using EnergyPlus v8.3-2014 was performed to assess the thermal and energy performance of a residential building for four different climates in Brazil (Belém, Campo Grande, Curitiba and Florianópolis). The performance criteria were the degree-hours and energy consumption for air-conditioning (both for heating and cooling) in different decision makers’ preference scenarios. The performances of eight constructive systems were evaluated considering uncertainties related to the operational variables of the building, obtained through field survey. The results showed that some systems had statistically equivalent performance considering the range of uncertainty. The system of masonry with double massive brickwork performed better for three climates; for Belém, however, an adequate system highly depends on the preference scenario. Nonetheless, different preference scenarios would indicate different adequate systems for all climates. This study used a method of decision-making which enables the possibility for future analyses of other performance alternatives, design variables, and performance criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rate of glazed area to floor area and to sun-exposed wall area of a room is one of the main relationships in energetically optimized architecture. This paper shows the results of the hygrothermal and lighting behaviour on autumn period, of a Primary School which was monitored for a year. It was selected from a universe of 60 school prototypes located in Resistencia, a hot-humid mid-latitude city in the Northeast of Argentina. The measurements were compared with simulations through Simedif, Ecotect and its Radiance interface, in real occupation conditions. A root mean square error of 0.6 °C was obtained. Then the thermal behaviour of the building with an optimized envelope by regulating its glazed areas was simulated for the same period of autumn. Better hygrothermal comfort conditions were verified with the optimization proposal, as well as higher levels of illuminance and uniformity in the spatial distribution of natural light, which would be reflected in an electrical consumption saving for lighting. Consequently, this study will contribute to determining criteria for sizing suitably glazed areas to achieve wellness conditions, which are not covered in full in the current Planning and Building Codes, for school buildings in Resistencia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluation methods can be used to determine what constitutes good energy performance in a building. With an increasing focus on energy use of buildings worldwide, this evaluation assumes a fundamental importance. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the available methods for analysing, classifying, benchmarking, rating and evaluating energy performance in non-domestic buildings. Methodologies are grouped in five categories: engineering calculations, simulation, statistical methods, machine learning and other methods. Techniques for evaluating buildings are described, their principal applications are shown and limitations are identified. The use of performance evaluation in energy efficiency programmes and standards is mapped. There is a need to further develop interactions between the main modelling techniques to produce simple, robust and validated models. Also, evaluation techniques must be developed to consider comfort or service provision in the buildings as a factor in energy performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficiently, robustly and accurately solving large sets of structured, non-linear algebraic and differential equations is one of the most computationally expensive steps in the dynamic simulation of building energy systems. Here, the efficiency, robustness and accuracy of two commonly employed solution methods are compared. The comparison is conducted using the HVACSIM+ software package, a component based building system simulation tool. The HVACSIM+ software presently employs Powell’s Hybrid method to solve systems of nonlinear algebraic equations that model the dynamics of energy states and interactions within buildings. It is shown here that the Powell’s method does not always converge to a solution. Since a myriad of other numerical methods are available, the question arises as to which method is most appropriate for building energy simulation. This paper finds considerable computational benefits result from replacing the Powell’s Hybrid method solver in HVACSIM+ with a solver more appropriate for the challenges particular to numerical simulations of buildings. Evidence is provided that a variant of the Levenberg-Marquardt solver has superior accuracy and robustness compared to the Powell’s Hybrid method presently used in HVACSIM+. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several new technologies can be today implemented in buildings in order to achieve the NZEB goal. In this paper a novel computer model for predicting the energy demand of buildings integrating phase change materials, photovoltaic-thermal collectors, adjacent sunspaces and innovative daylighting control is presented. Through this tool, DETECt 2.2, written in MatLab and conceived for research purposes, the overall energy and economic performance of multi-zone NZEBs can be assessed. Both the active and passive effects on the energy demands of all the above mentioned technologies, even if simultaneously utilized, are taken into account by means of an integrated building modelling approach. In addition, parametric and sensitivity analyses, with a single simulation run, can be carried out for design purposes. A novel relevant case study referred to the energy design of a non-residential NZEB for Mediterranean climates is developed. For this building a suitable energy optimization analysis was also carried out. For each use of the indoor space, the optimal value of the pivotal design and operating parameters is calculated. Details about the optimal position of building PCMs and thermal insulation layers, also coupled to BIPV and/or BIPV/T systems, are provided. For the obtained best configuration very low heating and cooling demands are achieved (0.9 and 1.5 kWh/m 3 y, respectively). Results about a simplified economic analysis carried out on the investigated energy saving technologies are also reported. At last, new NZEB definition details and criteria are provided for non-residential buildings located in the southern European zones (Mediterranean climates). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]