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This short communication critiques the paper of Primc & Slabe-Erker published in this journal in 2020. The reasons for this critique fall into two categories: engagement with the energy poverty literature and application of QCA according to best practices. The argumentation is supported by discussion of the EP literature and QCA methodology as well as reproduction of the study in question. Based on an evidenced critique, the paper argues that there is cause for caution regarding the claims the authors have made and need for additional research in this vein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency can make energy access more affordable by reducing the electricity cost burden on households and businesses. Improving products' energy efficiency helps reduce monthly energy bills— freeing up funds that can feed back into the economy, thus stimulating economic growth. To demonstrate these benefits, this paper conducts a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and a national impact analysis (NIA) for implementing an energy-efficiency standards and labeling (EESL) program for refrigeration products in Uganda. The CBA compares the costs versus the benefits of investing in energy-efficient products for consumers: It shows that the most cost-effective products have an efficiency level 35 % higher than baseline products sold on the market. By choosing these products, consumers save, on average, US$76 over the lifetime of the product. The NIA assesses the impact of an energy-efficiency standard set at that level and shows potential cumulative savings of US$595 million (2023–2040) for households and small businesses. These savings translate into additional purchasing power for households and investments for small businesses, leading to increased living standards and economic development. This paper describes the importance of implementing energy efficiency policies and programs in emerging economies where affordability of electricity hinders electricity access. This paper provides a rigorous approach of using CBA and NIA assessments to demonstrate the economic savings for the consumers and the nation to implement EESL programs for major electric equipment. • Energy efficiency increases consumer's welfare. • In Uganda, it can save consumers US$76 over the lifetime of the product. • This represents cumulative savings of US$595 million (2023–40) at the national level. • Energy efficiency policies is critical for electricity access affordability • The paper provides a Regulatory Impact Assessment replicable in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern electricity networks may face inertia shortages based on increasing inverter-based renewable energy penetration, along with the (often concurrent) decommissioning of aging synchronous thermal generators. In the South African network, the market share of coal generation is projected to decrease significantly based on the country's energy policy, primarily to be replaced by wind and solar PV. In this paper the inertia adequacy on the future South African network is evaluated, and the viability of converting retired synchronous generators to synchronous condensers is assessed based on sufficiency of inertia support provided and economic viability. It is found that by 2030, the South African network will have insufficient inertia for a significant portion of the year. However, significant improvements in Rate of Change of Frequency and frequency nadir are observed when incorporating inertia from converted synchronous condensers during multiple-contingency trip events. Finally, the conversion of synchronous generators to synchronous condensers is found to be the least-cost solution when compared to the installation of new synchronous condensers or of large-scale battery systems. The contributions made in this paper highlight the importance of considering network inertia in establishing a national energy policy, while also informing solutions to future inertia constraints. • The future South African electricity network will face significant inertial shortages by 2030. • Converting retired synchronous generators to synchronous condensers will significantly reduce inertia shortages. • The conversion of retired synchronous generators to synchronous condensers is cost-effective as an inertia support mechanism [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of social protection programs in low-income countries is increasingly becoming a subject of interest on the development agenda in the public discourse. The literature reveals a diversity of findings about the role of social protection on household development outcomes. There is little documentation regarding how social protection schemes affect household energy burdens in rural areas, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. Rwanda is one of the African countries that have taken deliberate steps to institutionalize the provision of social protection schemes to its citizenry. Therefore, this paper examined how accessibility to different social protection schemes affected household energy burdens in rural Rwanda using nationally representative household-level microdata (EICV5). Results from the Lewbel Instrumental Variable Estimator, nearest neighbor matching, and Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment showed that Vision 2020 Umurenge and Girinka social protection schemes significantly negatively affected household energy cost burdens. These study findings suggest that social protection schemes may require other efforts or policy instruments that might encourage use of modern energy services to address energy affordability barriers in rural areas. • The study found that Vision 2020 Umurenge and Girinka social protection schemes significantly negatively affected household energy cost burdens in rural Rwanda. • These study findings suggest that social protection schemes may require other efforts or policy instruments to address energy affordability barriers in rural areas. • The study recommends that Rwandan government may consider engaging energy policy entrepreneurs at all levels as focal points in the energy policy process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy cooperatives (RECs) in Turkey have received considerable attention in recent years and the total number of cooperatives is 46 in 2020. With increased environmental awareness and energy demand, RECs aim the local and renewable resources to be used by the people of the region by creating an example venture model through cooperatives. The growth in the number of cooperatives has resulted largely from Turkish energy policy and arrangement of Renewable Energies Act. This study is aimed to identify energy cooperatives, current situations, advantages, characterizing the implementation barriers RECs face and external factors. For this purpose, an online questionnaire was carried out with REC members and questionnaires were sent to 468 members of 20 cooperatives via e-mail, and approximately 80% return was obtained, 16 management board members were interviewed with categorized questions, and RECs websites were examined, as well. This paper presents an overview of This paper presents an overview of Turkish energy cooperatives in terms of organization, financing, membership, technology, policy, internal and external barriers drawing on collected data. How to create a better understanding of energy cooperatives and contribute to the Turkish energy policy were discussed. RECs could be an example venture model to provide the local and renewable resources to be used by the people of the region. Also, RECs can be an important building block of the energy transition in Turkey where consumed energy mainly imported from abroad and if RECs are to continue to play an important role in the energy transition, policy makers are expected to support their growth. These findings may be a guide for further researches for Turkey. • RECs can be an important building block of the energy transition in Turkey. • Differences in the development of RECs exist mainly regarding the finance. • The main external factor in the development of RECs is policy. • The amount of electricity produced is the most important indicator of success of RECs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data on potential electricity demand for the future is a fundamental necessity for forecasting and setting up the national grid extension. The lack of data in Malawi has resulted in the existence of enormously sparse literature on electricity demand modeling. A handful of studies on total electricity demand modeling exist in the African context and none for Malawi. The study is concerned with modeling possible future paths for Malawi's electricity future. The study aims at linking the current gap in the literature of electricity demand forecasting, at least partially, by projecting the total electricity demand for Malawi for a long-term duration and modeling alternate electricity supply prospects, together with scenarios and providing policy insights on a variety of user-defined assumptions of which can be applied in other African countries with similar challenges. This study employed a projection methodology using demographic, economic, and government policy trends with a pragmatic structure that uses bottom-up analysis. Electricity use scenario analysis focuses on government policy targets by 2030 at 15 %, 30 %, and 50 % electrification rate plus Growth Domestic Product (GDP) growth at 5 %, 6.5 %, and 7.2 % for three scenarios namely: low, base, and high, respectively. The base and high scenario outcomes indicate an overall electricity consumption growth of 165 % and 218 % by 2030 compared to the low scenario in the government of Malawi's (GoM) outlook, about 4776.78 GWh and 6319.05 GWh. The paper provides insights into the status of Malawi's electricity sector, policy influence, and recommendations regarding the "next steps" in electricity security analysis to create an understanding among various planners and stakeholders in the power sector. • Employed a methodology for modeling electricity demand in Malawi. • Presents overall synopsis of electric power consumption including sector-wise electricity demand forecasts. • Established a national-scale electricity plan for the period 2020–2030 for Malawi. • Provides insights on policies and recommendations regarding "next steps" in electricity security analysis [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social norms are often put forward to explain resistance to gender equality and social inclusion (GESI), and women continue to be largely absent from decision-making positions in the energy sector worldwide. However, there is limited research on the institutional mechanisms of policy-making and implementation at different scales within a federal system. Using Nepal as a case study, this paper explores why, despite commitments, progress toward GESI objectives in the energy sector has been slow. Based on a review of energy policies, and interviews at federal, provincial and local government spheres, this paper focuses on the institutional and policy processes at play within the energy sector and between the three spheres of the federal system (the national, provincial and local). It examines the extent to which these processes undermine the implementation of inclusion policy. Understanding the broader institutional processes helps to identify different types of bottlenecks compromising progress in GESI: those which are linked to deficient policy regimes which cannot be addressed solely through additional GESI-focused interventions, and those which can be characterized as resistant to GESI-related issues. The aim of this research is also to understand why Nepal's public energy institutions, despite a constitutional commitment to gender equality and non-discrimination based on caste, class, ethnicity and religion, seem so reluctant to mainstream GESI within its policies and practice. The paper concludes that GESI implementation in the energy sector suffers from limited human resources, a narrow conceptual framing and delays in policy development and implementation within different spheres of the federal system. Moreover, shortcomings related to GESI policy-making and implementation should be considered within the broader context of federalism. Therefore, to support GESI policy implementation, bureaucratic as well as local-level ownership of the concept and its relevance for sustainable development must be developed and strengthened. • Progress toward GESI objectives in the energy sector has been slow. • Policy-wise, GESI is well recognized, but the challenge is more in implementation. • Policies are mostly developed in individual projects as donor conditions. • There is limited GESI appropriation by government departments. • GESI policy-making/implementation should be considered within the context of federalism in Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, renewable energy (RE) policies are evaluated to draw up recommendations for the energy sector stakeholders. The good potential of RE exists in Palestine, especially solar and biomass resources. Structural frameworks and targets are established for RE penetration in Palestine. Some strategies for the enhancement of RE systems are already in place; however, sustainable policies are still needed. To accomplish this task, a comprehensive integrated approach, involving all consumed energy forms (e.g., electricity, heating and cooling, and transport sectors) is anticipated. Energy security in Palestine over the upcoming 20 years is investigated using a Monte-Carlo simulation model that applies different RE adoption scenarios. In order to meet the Palestinian population's electrical energy needs in the near future, RE sources should be growing at an annual rate of about 5–10%. Few incentives exist for photovoltaic systems, yet sufficient funds must be allocated to the other forms of RE. Licensing and permitting procedures must be simplified and made more attractive for investors in the RE sector. Specifications and codes relevant to the utilization of RE need to be developed and enforced, including RE system identification and grid connection. It is crucial to designate a certain institution that can monitor and evaluate RE policies and collect relevant data to promote RE implementation in Palestine. A policy framework is proposed to achieve future energy sustainability for Palestine. • Adequacy between energy needs and renewable energy supply is studied. • Good renewable energy potential in Palestine is well recognized. • Current energy and renewable energy policies are proved to be insufficient when compared with international practices. • Policy gaps are identified, while recommendations and a framework for renewable energy policies in Palestine are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pipeline transportation is a low-cost option for delivering large volumes of hydrogen (H 2), however, the high initial capital cost remains a major impediment to expanding pipeline delivery infrastructure. To quantitatively evaluate the impact of the H 2 pipeline on the hydrogen supply chain (HSC), this paper develops an evaluation system for the development potential of the H 2 pipeline and simulation models for H 2 resource allocation. Furthermore, the HSC system in the southwest of China is used to validate the proposed method. The results demonstrate that the levelized cost range of a given 150–550 km H 2 pipeline is 2.76–10.12 CNY/kg, which has price advantages over other transportation modes. Compared with the hydrogen supply chain resource allocation (HSCR) model, putting the H 2 pipeline into use can optimize the layout and utilization of different transportation modes. It shows that the proportion of H 2 transportation volume distribution in H 2 pipelines has increased from 0 % to 73.44 %, while the proportion of HLT has first increased from 18.86 % to 54.27 %, and then decreased to 17.95 %. And then under different policy scenarios, the consideration of pipeline reduces the sensitivity of the H 2 blending ratio of natural gas (NG) and NG demand to HSC. The impacts of policies on regional H 2 development and regional policy implications are revealed. This approach provides a tool for policymakers to quantify the impacts of policy. • Propose an evaluation system to quantify the H 2 pipeline economy. • Optimize H2 resource allocation in various policy scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The significance of renewable energy as a pivotal green industry in decarbonizing the global economy and addressing the climate change is profound. The rise of China's regional renewable energy serves as a testament to its transition from an industrial powerhouse to a leader of sustainable growth, offering valuable insights for a sustainable future worldwide. This study analyzes renewable energy efficiency, alongside the factors that influence it, in Qinghai Province over 2000–2021. It uses a combination of the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index factor decomposition, Data Envelopment Analysis of Super-SBM models, and field research with a rounded approach. The study finds a robust increase in renewable energy capacity, particularly after 2016. Efficiency in renewable energy generally has risen, although periods of inefficiency were noted from 2014 to 2019. Despite fluctuations, the overall impact of factors such as renewable energy structure, electricity intensity, energy security, energy intensity, carbon productivity, and carbon emissions, all contribute positively to the development of renewable energy, notably in recent years. The paper concludes with a discussion of green industrial policies with wider implications for the renewable energy sector. • The rise of China's regional renewable energy offers valuable insights for sustainability. • Renewable energy capacity in Qinghai increased robustly over 2000-2021. • Renewable energy efficiency has risen but with inefficiency from 2014 to 2019. • Despite fluctuations, the overall impact of influencing factors promoted renewable energy, notably in recent years. • There is a need for stable green industrial policy, diverse energy mix, strengthening grid infrastructure, and promoting sustainable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the frame of an enhanced environmental discussion regarding the existence and convenience of energy decoupling or dematerialization, this paper studies the past trends of global primary energy resources in relation to monetary and demographic variables in a top-down framework. This paper aims at contributing to the literature on dematerialization and energy sustainability from a dynamic perspective, with the purpose of shedding light on some questions, such as the real existence of an intergenerational energy dematerialization. To this purpose we use the phase diagrams of energy intensity and the product generational dematerialization (PGD) indicator for the period 1970–2011 for the global economy, the OECD and Latin American and Caribbean regions, China and India. While from energy intensity perspective a decoupling trend can be observed, we found no evidence for global intergenerational sustainable energy path in the long term. In this context, some questions related to the real impact of past and future environmental policies on energy consumption arise, especially in relation to developing countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean and Pacific have gone from a place of self-sufficiency and energy independence, during pre-colonial times, to a position, in more recent times, of being (often heavily) dependent on both imported capital (loans and aid) and imported sources of energy. This paper asserts that the current dependence of Caribbean and Pacific SIDS on both development assistance from donor agencies and imported fossil fuels is not coincidental, but rather, it was due to the transition of these islands from subsistence agriculture to export-oriented economies, primarily to serve the interests of more developed metropolitan countries. These interests have included the provision of cheap raw materials and agricultural produce to imperial nations; which has meant that SIDS needed to develop export orientated economies requiring both financial capital and energy supply usually over and above that available locally. The impact of colonisation on domestic energy use and demand in SIDS is thus briefly outlined so as to make clear how these nations transitioned from self-sufficiency to dependence on foreign capital and energy. It is upon this backdrop that the current dependence of SIDS on international aid, particularly with regards to the energy sector, has been analysed, along with its influence on energy policy in SIDS. This paper suggests that while imported finance and energy have been crucial to the past development of SIDS, the extent of reliance upon external financial assistance and energy imports at present is a cause for concern not only due to long term energy security issues but also because of the climate change implications of fossil fuel use. The concern is also pressing within the context of long term debt accumulation. It is argued herein that closer attention should be paid to local capacity building, training and institutional strengthening to enable a transition to renewable energy in place of fossil fuel based power. In terms of long term resilience such capacity building could eventually include the means for the production of renewable energy technology components. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, the implementation of biogas technologies in animal farms in Thailand and the government policies used to promote these technologies are presented. The Thai government has created a goal of achieving 14% of all energy needs from renewable resources by 2022. As a renewable technology, biogas has the potential to reduce Thailand's dependence on fossil fuels which make up over 90% of Thailand's electricity generation. An unfortunate by-product from animal farm waste is the greenhouse gas, methane. The benefits from capturing and utilizing this gas include increased electric generation, less odor in the local community, less greenhouse gas emissions, more revenue for farmers and production of raw fertilizer material. Thailand has the potential to produce over onebillionm3 of biogas per annum from its agricultural industry alone. Current utilization is only 36% of this potential. This paper will briefly discuss the technology used to capture and use biogas from animal farms in Thailand. The effect of government policies on this technology deployment shall be discussed. This paper demonstrates how technology and policy need to work together in order to best provide a practical solution for energy problems. In 2012, greenhouse gases worth 1400Gg CO2 equivalent were saved from entering the atmosphere from animal farms in Thailand. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In 2005 the government of India declared its policy for development of biofuels. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources of India has identified around 400 oil seed species available in the forests of India, which can be used for various applications including that as biofuels. Due to lack of detailed studies and non-availability of mechanism for the collections of these oilseeds, this source has remained largely untapped. The National Oilseed and Vegetable Oil Development Board (NOVOD) is working on strategies to promote studies and for establishing mechanisms for collection. These biofuels can be effectively used to meet some or all of the energy needs of remote un-electrified villages. This can be achieved by generating electricity at village level, in a decentralized manner by using small capacity generator sets running on biodiesel derived from locally available oils. In this case it will be essential to find techniques for utilization of non-edible de-oiled seedcake obtained as the byproduct of this process. Using the seedcake for biogas generation by anaerobic digestion process is a promising option. Mahua (Madhuca indica) is a specie naturally available with high tree density in most parts of India. In addition one less familiar oil seed specie available in central India is Hingan (Balanites aegyaptiaca). The paper investigates the suitability of de-oiled cakes of these two oilseeds for biogas generation. This investigation reveals that both the seedcakes have a mean biogas generation potential in the range of 198 to 233l/kg of seedcake. The biogas generated from these sources could make a significant contribution to cooking energy demand in rural areas. The paper also highlights the fact that the sludge and the slurry coming out of the reactor as waste have very high manurial value by virtue of its high nitrogen content and a good amount of other secondary and tertiary nutrients. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries face many challenges in their energy policy. Traditionally, energy efficiency has not been important in SSA. On the contrary, growing energy use is often regarded as a condition for economic growth. This paper argues that SSA countries could take a leap to an energy efficient economy, avoiding the path that e.g. Europe has taken, first expanding its energy use and now painfully reducing it. In elaborating their energy vision, SSA countries could profit from European Union experience. The paper has selected four policy areas to present lessons: energy using products, buildings, energy efficiency in transport, efficiency in cities and communities. Energy labels work together with efficiency standards for energy consuming products. These take time to be established but provide a process that can be repeated from one product group to another. The biggest consumption sectors in scarce supply networks should be addressed first, be it lighting, cooking or refrigerating. There is also a need to inform retail market chains. The use of these tools in second hand markets could be developed. European policy experience highlights the importance of building regulations and building codes. Other policy tools are needed in parallel, notably training, education and information to all professionals in construction and building maintenance. Fiscal tools, car or fuel taxation, are effective to improve the energy efficiency of cars. Eco driving schemes both for professional drivers and as part of driving licence education are cheap measures. Car efficiency labelling is a useful awareness raising tool. Similar, simplified schemes could also be developed for second had cars. Energy efficiency and savings take place at a local level. Europe has obtained good results from city networks where cities develop their own action plans for sustainable energy and transport and exchange their knowledge and experience. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: South Asia accounts for 42% of the global population without access to electricity. Such a situation continues to exist despite several initiatives and policies to support electrification efforts by the respective country governments. The challenges to enhance electricity access are manifold including technical, financial, institutional and governance barriers. This paper makes a modest attempt, based on extensive literature review, to highlight the rural electrification situation at the regional and country level in South Asia. The paper also does a comparative analysis to exploit cross learning potential and suggest specific boosters that could serve as input for policy evaluation, review and improvements to assist future electrification efforts in the region. We focussed on renewable energy based mini-grids and stand-alone systems and also covered conventional grid extension. The paper raised some pertinent issues and attempted to find solutions to these issues. The household connection needs to be improved considerably through a targeted approach and innovative micro-lending model. At the same time the electricity supply also needs to be enhanced, such as through distributed power projects utilizing locally available renewable resources, to ensure that connected households continue to receive electricity and that supply constraints do not inhibit extending electrification to new areas. Developing a regulatory mechanism to extend the tariff fixation for mini-grid projects and providing cross-subsidies to ensure long term sustainability of such projects are highlighted. Finally, economic linkages, access to credit and institutional arrangements also need to be organized appropriately, especially for off-grid RE to facilitate successful outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Presenting data from Asian Development Bank (ADB), this paper attempts to examine the bank''s energy for development portfolio within a 12-year period beginning in 1997, the year when the Kyoto Protocol was adopted. This paper seeks to understand the implications of this particular assistance to climate change mitigation in terms of filling the gaps in providing resources for energy-related projects. With more than US $12 billion development assistance to support the energy sector in the last 12years, ADB was able to mobilize substantial support from 2005 onwards. The paper also shows that annual energy assistance was virtually stagnant and even lacking before 2005. Evidence suggests that some efforts are being made to fill the resource gap and to mitigate climate change especially in 2008. While analysis suggests that there has been a substantial increase in financing to lower greenhouse gas emitting energy projects, the shift tends to be fragile. ADB still favors financing large profitable projects and concentrates its portfolio mostly to selected regions and countries. For ADB to provide significant contribution to climate change mitigation, several challenges remain to be met in the future from increasing funding to meet demands for increasing number of renewable and efficiency projects to expanding assistance especially in underserved countries and regions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract Over 90% of the rural population in sub-Saharan Africa still relies on fuelwood as their primary source of household energy. In this context, recent robust data on fuelwood consumption in rural areas are needed to conceive and implement appropriate energy policies. This paper identifies the factors that determine fuelwood consumption variability in two villages in Burkina Faso, based on a two-year survey of 60 rural households of different size and wealth status. The women who made up the panel were surveyed at five-day intervals over a period of three months in the rainy season, one month in the cold dry season and one month in the hot dry season. Our results corroborate some fuelwood consumption patterns in rural SSA: fuelwood consumption per adult equivalent decreases both with the size of the household and with local wood scarcity. Conversely, it challenges the idea that the level of consumption is correlated with the level of household wealth. Finally, the most important result is that the scarcity of wood resources leads people to buy fuelwood from outside and adopt strategies to reduce their consumption by reducing the number of cooking cycles and certainly by wasting less energy, whatever the level of household wealth. Highlights • Fuelwood consumption is analyzed in two villages in rural Burkina Faso. • Seven endogenous and exogenous factors are examined. • Four main factors explain fuelwood consumption. • Fuelwood consumption per person is highly dependent on household size. • Wood abundance significantly influences consumption and cooking habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The differences between the Common but Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR) principle and the Equal Treatment for All Ships principle create a stalemate for future policy progress in vessel-based CO2 emissions reduction negotiations. This paper investigates the economic costs of CO2 emissions reduction with and without considering the CBDR under two separate regulatory scenarios, evaluates the impact on trade cost, and discusses the real policy concerns of developing countries insisting that the CBDR be applied by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). This paper shows that the cost increases to large developing countries are small even using a very stringent estimate. However, a policy that requires all ships to reduce CO2 emissions increases international trade costs for small-island nations significantly, presenting an equity issue to be resolved. The current proposal to rebate money to developing countries has merit, especially for small countries. It does not address some fundamental concerns of major developing countries, however. To engage these countries, their interests have to be secured and some new policies should be created. This paper proposes some policy options that may involve these countries and consolidate an international effort in the IMO to reach binding agreements to reduce ship-based CO2 in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper outlines the development of renewable energy in Malaysia and the institutional framework to support it. The incentives provided for renewable energy are grouped into two categories. Under the Promotion of Investment Act, the incentives granted are pioneer status, investment tax allowance and reinvestment allowance. Depending on the modality of the investment an investor can opt for any of these incentives. Incentives are also given under the approved service projects such as transportation, communications and utility projects, whereby promoters under this category can enjoy tax exemption under Section 127 and investment allowance under Schedule 7B of the Income Tax Act 1967. The barriers to the promotion of renewable energy technologies and the measures to overcome them are also discussed. The paper finally discusses the source-specific concerns and recommended measures to develop renewable energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper traces the history of the electricity power sector in Sri Lanka from the introduction of electricity to the country by a private company called Baustead Brothers Ltd. in 1895 during the colonial period to date. The historical development provides an introduction to the present generating system of the country and serves also to highlight the principles of methodical development of power generation in the country. The main state sector agency in electricity generation and distribution is the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB). The CEB is also entrusted with generation planning and it is empowered to make its decisions on the basis of least cost to the national economy. The country faced its most severe power crisis in 1996 and is facing another such crisis today. How CEB plans to meet the country''s future electricity needs is thus discussed against this climate of power shortages and uncertainty. Providing all related information such as low growth in 1996 and economic scenarios that preceded these events the paper attempts to answer the key question, “Can we blame this on lack of planning and foresight on the part of CEB planners?” The CEB planning exercise is presented in detail and shows how the plans were developed in keeping in view the country''s needs at various times. The generating options considered involve both conventional energy sources and renewables, and the selection is based on an analysis based in turn on the International Atomic Energy Agency''s WASP 111 simulation model, the software of choice of CEB''s generation planning division. It is shown that the Sri Lankan power system is in a state of transition from being predominantly hydro-based to predominantly coal-based within the first decade of this century. After giving details of why, how, and what, and outlining the capacity development plan after demand analysis, the paper concludes that the proof of the effectiveness of the plan will be in its implementation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

International engagement in sub-Saharan Africa's power sector is increasing rapidly. Aid is used to directly finance a growing number of foreign companies to implement power projects, accompanied by calls for policy and governance reform. This paper argues that while new and much-needed finance is becoming available, the current approach to foreign support poses several new challenges for broad and sustainable long-term development of the African power sector. They include a focus on creating market opportunities for non-African rather than domestic companies, the difficulty of delivering large-scale rural electrification through the externally advocated market-based approach, economic inefficiencies of current aid spending, and the difficulty of tackling complex, country-specific issues with continental electrification initiatives. To address these challenges, we suggest redirecting public funds towards rural electrification, increasing African ownership, individualising policy interventions and easing the current types of neoliberal conditionalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The regional integration of electricity markets has been established as desirable among the South American nations to meet demands through the possible consolidation of a unified competing market in the medium term (CAN, 2010). However, what remains to be defined are rules of the game with satisfactory benefits for all parties that have been demonstrated. In this paper we propose a model of power integration based on the Market Coupling scheme, which starts with the modeling of the national markets using the System Dynamics modeling methodology. As a result, the expected behavior of the system is obtained, except in the case of exports, in which, because of the assumption of an infinite transmission capacity between nations, it is seen to surpass the real values found in the market. The work presented in this document (based on two nations, Colombia and Ecuador) allows experimentation for the formulation of the rules of the game necessary in the regional integration of markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In East Africa, charcoal and firewood will remain the main sources of energy for cooking for the next two to three decades. Corresponding energy policies are needed that set proper priorities and improve the sustainability of the biomass energy sector. In this paper, we assess the supply potentials of wood-based and non-woody biomass fuels in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania, and formulate recommendations to support sustainable biomass energy strategies in East Africa. We differentiate between tree types of potentials: the supply potential, the access potential, and the production potential. In order to calculate these potentials, we use a spatial Bayesian network that specifically enables accounting for uncertainties in the data and model. The main results show: (1) that agroforestry and small-scale mixed farming are the land use types with the highest potentials, (2) that firewood, charcoal, and biogas have substantial potential, whereas crop residue briquettes and Jatropha oil have only minor potentials, and (3) that such estimates can be subject to substantial uncertainties. Based on these results, we recommend that biomass energy strategies in East Africa consider the specific assets and limiting factors of the various fuel types and land use types in order to improve the supply of sustainable biomass cooking fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Firewood is the major fuel for household heating in south-central Chile and combustion of wood is the major source of air pollution by particulate matter (PM) emissions in this region. This paper discusses various strategies for lowering emissions from household wood combustion and their effectiveness in reducing air contamination. A survey of 2025 households and previous analysis performed with these data showed large consumption of wood fuel for heating in dwellings in Valdivia. The main variable identified is the low thermal efficiency of household envelope. Low efficiency of household envelope, low comfort, and a large share of income dedicated to energy, determines a high level of energy poverty. We have modeled the thermal retrofitting of dwellings under three efficiency scenarios, including stoves’ and house’s envelope improvements. Retrofitting houses led to energy poverty alleviation; in contrast, improvement of heating appliances alone does not alleviate energy poverty nor improve indoor comfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Minimum Energy Efficiency Standards (MEES) for residential appliances have been part of the Mexican national energy policy since the early nineties. This study analyzes the impact of MEES on residential electricity consumption and the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions related to refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, televisions and lighting products in Mexico. The paper presents estimated achievements of MEES from 1990 to 2012 and future scenarios until 2030 by implementing stricter MEES based on the best technology available. A replacement technology model was developed to estimate, saved energy and avoided CO 2 emissions for different appliances' lifetimes. Considering a 16-year average lifetime of appliances and 80% penetration of efficient lighting technologies, in 2013 energy savings were estimated to be 16.06-TWh (emission reduction of 9.5 Tg CO 2 ). Different scenarios are presented assuming different average lifetimes of appliances as well as an increase in renewable energy sources in electricity production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents results of three United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) sponsored field studies which assessed the fuel consumption impacts of household energy programs in Benin, Uganda, and Gujarat, India. These studies expand on a previous round of U.S. EPA supported efforts to build field testing capacity and collect stove performance data in Peru, Nepal, and Maharashtra, India. Daily fuel consumption estimates of traditional and intervention technologies were made using the Kitchen Performance Test (KPT) protocol to determine the potential fuel savings associated with the respective programs. The programs in Benin and Gujarat, India resulted in significant fuel savings of approximately 29% and 61%, respectively. In Uganda, the homes using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consumed approximately 31% less charcoal than those not using LPG, although the total energy consumption per household was similar between the baseline and LPG user groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces and examines a conceptual dialectic between best practice and gradualism in regard to wind power policymaking strategy. It attempts to ascertain the extent to which either of these two strategies is evident in actual applied policy experience. To do so, the study presents an overview of wind power policy in Denmark from the inception of its modern day program to the present time. It concludes that both best practice and gradualist strategies were evident during the evolution of Denmark's wind power development and that the concept of "gradualist best practice" better explains the Danish wind power policymaking strategy. This article concludes with a discussion of how this reconceptualization helps improve an understanding of policymaking and helps overcome weaknesses of best practice or gradualist strategies applied in isolation of each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper discusses a basic problem in innovation studies, namely the allocation of scarce funds for governmental subsidies to market and R&D support, with the aim to effectively promote a transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy technologies. Although various ideas on this exist, a general framework is lacking. We develop such a framework, discuss its relevance for various types of countries and examine which policies different countries have employed to promote renewable energy. We compare the strategies of Germany, with more focus on market instruments, of California, with a greater emphasis of R&D, and of China, characterized by central planning. In addition, we interpret the results of decomposition analyses using two factor learning curves. We draw conclusions about a desirable balance of subsidies and associated policies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper measures the company's awareness and acceptability of market-based instruments (MBIs) for energy saving, and identifies their relationships with pre-classified determinants. The data were collected from 170 respondents mainly from iron & steel, cement and chemical sectors in China. The surveyed companies indicate moderate awareness but good acceptability of MBIs in overall. In contrast to the regulative polices, MBIs and voluntary approaches are more appreciated by the samples. There exist significant and positive relationships between a company's size and its awareness and acceptability of MBIs. This analysis suggests that a company's policy acceptability would be largely determined by the company's perceived policy influences on its comparative competition. The companies would make internal efforts to offset energy cost increases due to the possible introduction of economic pressure policies while being reluctant to simply transfer the policy burden to their clients. Empirical evidences on the conditions for the success of MBIs from this study are meaningful for supporting the future progress of industrial energy saving policies in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides guidelines which may be useful for the implementation of the Romanian PV system Strategy. Four solutions for PV module orientation were analyzed: (1) fixed optimum tilt angle, (2) single-axis azimuth orientation; (3) single-axis elevation orientation and (4) two-axis orientation. The fixed module at optimum tilt angle collects 14–17% more solar energy than a horizontal module. The optimum tilt angle ranges between 32° in the South and 40° in the North of the country. The difference between the performance of the two single-axis orientation systems (2) and (3) is small. Both systems provide 23–25% more electric energy than fixed modules. Two axes orientation generates 27–30% more electric energy than fixed modules. Modules based on the four types of cells have been considered for a PV plant of given installed power: (1) Poly Si; (2) Mono Si; (3) CdTe and (4) CuInSe. The smallest and largest collection surface areas correspond to Mono Si and CdTe, respectively. The energy generated by all types of modules is comparable, with the highest and lowest values being associated to CdTe and CuInSe cells, respectively. The limited transport capacity of the existing electric grid in South-East Romania puts an upper bound on the number of PV systems to be carried out in the near future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the link between formalisation of charcoal institutions and livelihood outcomes in Central- and West Africa. The woodfuel trade generally commenced informally, little controlled by legal or bureaucratic means. Developing formal institutions is often considered as a way of managing charcoal production more sustainably. However, formalisation can have adverse effects for charcoal producers and traders when this hinders their capacity to access the resource or markets. In order to assess the relations between the formalisation of charcoal institutions and socio-economic outcomes for those involved, this study combines a value chain and livelihoods perspective. A review of case studies and empirical data show that (1) West African countries, with a longer history of dealing with woodfuel issues, have more formal mechanisms in place to deal with charcoal management and these are more embedded into cross-sectorial energy and environmental policies; (2) Despite regulatory mechanisms dealing with woodfuel in all countries, institutions are mainly embedded in informal institutions and based upon customary rules, which allows large numbers of actors to be involved, but also leads to substantial unsustainable and unofficial production, corrupt practises and loss of tax revenues; (3) Formal mechanisms can have negative consequences, such as: conflicts of interests over tax revenues, difficulties in avoiding ‘free riders’ from sustainable management initiatives, and disproportional benefits reaped by more powerful urban-based actors. Comparing the West African countries with Central African countries where attention is relatively new, indicates that conditions for successful charcoal institutions are: devolving power and responsibilities for woodfuel management to a local level, monitoring woodfuel trade, (tax) incentives for sustainably produced charcoal and reinvesting taxes in social and environmental aims. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Licensing the exploitation of forest resources is often used as a preferred policy to regulate natural resource management in developing countries. Based on survey data from 178 charcoal traders, this paper studies the regulated charcoal trade in Madagascar and tests if regulatory control through a licensing system leads to rents (i.e., excess payments above those required to induce or provide for production) in charcoal trade. Two main findings were made. First, annual gross margins are significantly higher for traders in the regulated low-value charcoal industry compared to traders in the unregulated agricultural sector. Moreover, differences in transaction characteristics cannot explain the disparities in margins. This evidence suggests that at least part of rents is captured by intermediaries (e.g. traders), and that these rents are not trivial (gross margins in charcoal trade are more than twice as large as in agricultural trade). Second, traders in the charcoal sector with more government connections have greater access to the rents that stem from charcoal regulation. A significant portion of charcoal trade circumvents regulation suggesting that traders'' margins are increasing in rent-specific social capital (i.e. number of government officials known). This is in stark contrast to the agricultural sector where no such effect is found. Efforts to design or reform policies intended to prevent deforestation and forest degradation through licensing, must clearly take this into account. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents statistical findings from research focusing on factors that may help explain electricity access levels in emerging countries. It focuses on why SSA countries are lagging behind with regard to the provision of electricity services, despite reforms in the electricity sector. Poverty levels, gross domestic savings, energy-related gross fixed capital formation, rural population and population density are used as independent variables in the econometric analysis. We find that some factors characterizing electricity access levels in SSA countries have a different impact than those in other developing economies. Our results show that the size of rural population plays a more important role in SSA countries than in non-SSA countries. Furthermore, government effectiveness appears to explain more of the variation in electricity levels in SSA countries than in non-SSA countries. The requirements for clear political commitment and leadership with a strong focus on providing electricity access to the rural poor are underscored. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Increasing the efficiency by which energy is extracted or captured, converted, and utilized not only requires the improvement of current technology and the development of new transformative ones, but also paying much more attention to improving coherent governance of energy efficiency institutions. I am suggesting that the transformation of energy systems is unlikely to succeed without the transformation of the way these institutions are designed. The paper proposes a framework that builds on concepts encompassing three principal identifiers of coherent institutional governance – motivation, capacity, and interventions – to respond to the questions: What institutional arrangements emerge at different governance levels to promote energy efficiency as a policy? What are the challenges to achieve coherent governance in institutions? I used a case analysis method to test these identifiers at selected energy efficiency institutions that are perceived to display enabling conditions necessary for coherent governance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Developing countries have struggled with low electrification rates in rural areas. This study investigates one major issue which is impeding rural electrification programmes: high connection payments. This paper uses estimates obtained from a stated preference study in rural Kenya using a contingent valuation method which was completed in 2007, in order to examine the subjects'' willingness to pay to connect to grid electricity and photovoltaic services. The key findings suggest that the government needs to reform the current energy subsidies, establish financial schemes and create a multilevel critical analysis of the political economy of energy systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Kerosene subsidies intended for Indian households have been known for their poor targeting and high fiscal costs. However, the distributional benefits to the 160million households that use kerosene are not well understood. In this paper, the kerosene subsidy is formally assessed as an instrument of income redistribution. The subsidy incidence, progressivity and efficacy of the kerosene subsidy are calculated for the state of Maharashtra, under actual and ideal implementation conditions. The analysis shows that kerosene subsidies are regressive and of minimal financial value to poor rural households. This is in part because household quotas are based on cooking needs, but kerosene is used predominantly for lighting. In urban areas, subsidies are progressive, and provide benefits of up to 5 to 10% of household expenditure among poorer households which lack affordable access to LPG and biomass. Overall, only 26% of the total subsidy value directly reaches households. This analysis suggests that subsidies targeted only to kerosene-dependent urban areas would have a higher efficacy than broad-based subsidies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), all households in sub-Saharan Africa will need to have access to basic infrastructure services. The challenge in meeting this goal is in bringing this access while simultaneously driving down the costs. With an understanding of cost drivers and the implications of achieving scale it becomes possible to plan a pathway to successful infrastructure services access expansion. The analysis presented in this paper addresses the issue of local and national electricity distribution planning in Senegal using a model that identifies cost drivers of targeted electrification, providing useful policy guidance to both national and local planners. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to capture connection cost and coverage (access) variations as a function of demand, fuel, and policy uncertainties. The local (an area of 400km2 in northern Senegal) and national case studies of Senegal yield the following key results. For both case studies, a high percentage (20–50%) of the currently non-electrified population lives in areas where grid expansion is more cost favorable than the decentralized energy supply technologies. Expansion outcomes (costs and access) are very sensitive to demand levels and capital cost of Medium Voltage lines and transformers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper aims to shed light on the nexus of electricity, firm performance, and economic development in a dynamic rural area in Southern Uganda. Using quantitative firm-level data on 200 micro-enterprises complemented by qualitative case studies we find that modern energy increases the importance of electricity-using capital and alters the sectoral distribution of economic activities. By contrast, we find no evidence for an expansionary effect of electrification on firm profits or worker remuneration. In fact, many entrepreneurs consider the direct gain from connecting to the grid to be small. Qualitative information, however, suggests that a positive indirect impact of electrification on firm performance is induced by the overall expansive effect electrification has on local demand. The demand increase can be partly assigned to people moving into the electrified community from surrounding non-electrified areas. We conclude that if productive energy promotion policies are put in place they should address drawing up thorough business plans to enable local entrepreneurs to take informed connection and investment decisions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Although wind power is currently enjoying a boom period, maximizing development potential will be largely influenced by how well developers manage social and environmental issues. As more wind farms are developed, threats to both social and ecological endowments will increase. The intent of this paper is to provide a comprehensive literature review and analysis of social impediments to wind power development under two broad thematic areas—concerns over impairment of existing community endowments and concerns over impairment of existing ecosystems—in order to provide policy makers with insight into strategic approaches for reducing the propensity for social opposition to wind power development projects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This case study, which analyzes wind power development policy in Taiwan, investigates a theme that is commonly encountered by policy makers in a number of policy settings—how can appropriate policies be developed when two (or more) seemingly valid, yet disparate scientific or technical estimates confound objective analysis? The paper adopts the context of wind power development policy in Taiwan to demonstrate how to employ organizational analysis to identify factors which influence subjective assumptions underpinning disparate estimates of wind power potential and then demonstrates the application of two concepts from chaos theory – fitness landscapes and strategic real options – for guiding policy making despite the existence of technological dissent. In contrast to progressively declining feed-in tariffs that are commonly associated with fledgling renewable energy programs, this study introduces the concept of progressively escalating feed-in tariffs to encourage the development of mature markets—in this case, the Taiwan wind power market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

One of the main obstacles to the socio-economic development of the Brazilian Amazon is the lack of electric energy in the numerous small isolated communities of the region that hampers value-added agricultural production, revenue growth and creation of jobs. One way to solve this problem is by setting up micro-hydro power (MHP) plants under a sustainable development perspective. This paper presents a decision support system (DSS) that analyzes this solution. The system considers the hydrological, topographical, geotechnical, environmental, energy, economic and social aspects of the target site. A detailed analysis is made of the hydrological model that employs a rainfall run-off model for small catchment analysis; the energy planning favors a two-turbine method to determine the maximum energy production during demand peaks, and the economic aspects show that the costs of energy generated by MHP plants are comparable to those from rural grid systems and lower than those from from diesel generators. Thus, the use of the hydro-power resources of the small catchments of Amazonia combined with the minimization of the environmental impacts caused by MHP not only fulfills the energy demand of the small communities of region, but is also viable economically along with job creation and revenue generation, and it supports the perspective of sustainable development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The study, conducted in 2001-2003, presented in this paper examines the economic impact of the quality of electricity delivered to the industrial installations in Bangladesh. The assessment consists of analyzing power supply interruptions and their economic impact on a sample of industrial consumers, estimating self-generation costs and environmental impacts. It was found that the industrial sector losses attributable to unplanned electric power interruptions average 0.83 US$/kWh while they are only 0.34 US$/kWh for planned outages. Further, it was found that the voltage fluctuations can cause major problems in certain industries, such as tobacco manufacturing and chemicals. It is estimated that 94% of the total energy not served resulting from interruptions is due to unplanned outages and only 6% can be attributable to planned outages. Approximately 13.6% of the industrial sector demand cannot be met by the utilities due to these interruptions. This translates into 11.54% of the industrial sector GDP or 1.72% of Bangladesh''s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2000-01. It is concluded that the impact of these outages on the economy is significant. If the frequency and duration of outages can be reduced, a higher tariff is likely to be acceptable to important industries such as tobacco, wearing apparel, and leather products. Further, improving awareness of energy conservation and implementation of an aggressive programme towards it in the industrial sector will help to ease these adverse impacts on the economy to a large extent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper summarises the results of a study that analysed ways of making South Africa''s future energy development more sustainable. The South African economy is comparatively energy-intensive, with total primary energy supply of 11.7 MJ per US$ of GDP on a purchasing power parity basis, compared to 7.9 MJ/$ for Asia and 6.7 MJ/$ for Latin America. Moreover, the high dependence on coal makes the country also very carbon-intensive, with energy related CO2 emissions of 6.7 tonnes per capita, comparable to the OECD average of about 11 tCO2 /cap., and far higher than the non-OECD average of 1.7 tCO2/cap. Important policy initiatives are already under way to improve energy efficiency as well as the share of renewable energy. The impact of different energy policies, including alternative technologies for both supply and demand up to 2025, were analysed using the Markal model, a least-cost optimising tool. The reference case is close to the government''s Integrated Energy Plan, with CO2 emissions increasing from 337 million tonnes (Mt) in 2001 to 591 Mt in 2025. A cost-effective renewable energy policy scenario would increase the renewable electricity generation from 2,000 GWh in 2001 to almost 18,000 GWh in 2025, with significant contribution from solar thermal and biomass cogeneration technologies. Energy efficiency can make a substantial contribution, especially in industry. The combination of measures would reduce total energy system costs by 16 billion rands ($ 2.2 billion) and CO2 emissions by 770 Mt, each over a 25-year period. The policies analysed here can therefore contribute both to sustainable development and to climate change mitigation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

India has over two decades of experience of formulating and implementing bioenergy programmes. These programmes have undergone changes from time to time, reflecting the dynamics of the policy environment. The Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), the prime mover of the programmes in India, has now responded with a comprehensive renewable energy policy to give a further fillip to the evolving sector. The need for climate change mitigation provides an opportunity for promoting the renewable energy (RE) sector. This calls for an assessment of the policy barriers to the spread of bioenergy technologies (BETs) in India. This paper attempts to (1) assess technical potential and achievements of BETs, (2) analyse the institutional framework for bioenergy development, (3) review policies on BETs being promoted under various RE programmes in India, (4) identify barriers to the spread of BETs, and (5) consider policy options to overcome some of the key barriers. The experience shows that despite several financial incentives and favourable policy measures, the rate of spread of BETs is low because of the existence of institutional, technical, market and credit barriers. These barriers are by and large known, but what still remains to be understood is the type and size of barriers from the stakeholders'' perspective, which varies for a given technology and the stakeholder. Policy options suggested to overcome such barriers include (1) rational energy pricing, (2) incentives to promote private sector participation, (3) institutions to empower and enable community participation, (4) financial support for large-scale demonstration programmes and for focused research and development on BETs for cost reduction and efficiency improvement, and finally, (5) favourable land tenurial arrangements to promote sustained biomass supply. The global mechanisms for addressing climate change such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) provide additional incentives to promote BETs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents an analysis of policies to identify the barriers to the promotion and widespread use of bioenergy technologies (BETs) in Sri Lanka. The importance of biomass as a sustainable source of energy is recognised. The present status of BETs and the achievements are discussed. The institutional framework of the energy sector, the national energy planning and policies and, in particular, the national policy documents related to energy and environment are presented. In spite of large-scale usage and importance, the biomass industry operates on its own without any specific encouragement from the government. The importance of wood as a sustainable energy source and the problems associated with it are largely undervalued by planners and policy-makers. There are many barriers that have given rise to a host of problems in the development and promotion of BETs in the country. Barriers to the promotion and widespread use of BETs are identified under different categories, including financial, technical, institutional, policy and information. Finally, measures for the promotion of BETs are proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper analyses the energy situation in Thailand. Information on past and present use of energy is presented, particularly on biomass energy. Biomass technologies currently being promoted and estimated resource potential, including projections for the years 2005 and 2010, are also briefly explained. National initiatives to promote the use of renewable energy technologies, especially biomass energy technologies and the institutional framework, are reviewed and presented. Finally, barriers to the promotion of biomass energy technologies are analysed and discussed, followed by recommendations and measures to overcome these barriers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]