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A preliminary survey of ca. 1500 Ontario Iroquoian effigy pipes indicates that "human" and animal representations develop according to two different chronologies. It is suggested that animals as reprersentations of guardian spirits, remained constant while the human effigies changed with the historical situation and its effects, such as contact and disease. The latter appear to represent supernaturals with attributes of shamans and curers. The Iroquoian speaking peoples who occupied what is now Ontario and upstate New York produced a remarkable body of material known as effigy pipes. These smoking pipes are carved of stone or more often modelled in clay to represent a variety of beings. For the effigy pipes produced in southwestern Ontario there appears to be two distinct sequences; the chronology of development of those representing birds and animals does not match the chronology of those which represent "humans. " This paper examines the two chronologies, proposes an explanation for the divergence and notes possible relationships to the pipes from the St. Lawrence.2 Past studies of Ontario effigies have proved to be of limited value since they were usually based on small samples which were included in studies with a different focus (Emerson 1954; Noble 1968; Weber 1970; Rutsch 1973). A recent study by Noble (1979) attempts to be more comprehensive. The results presented here are based on approximately 1500 effigy pipes which have been documented from Ontario. This survey has attempted to be as comprehensive as possible, including all relevant public collections in Ontario and the United States, all accessible private collections, as well as previously published or unpublished drawings and photographs of pipes from this area. The quantity of pipes examined has allowed initial analyses to be limited to specimens securely dated by provenance and still retain a reasonable sample.

The origin of reindeer breeding has been the subject of much intensive and often heated discussion among Lapp scholars. Yet, not until 1933 with the publication of the Norwegian judge and man of letters Erik Solem's Lappiske Rettsstudier was it clearly demonstrated that the origins of reindeer breeding and the beginning of full-scale pastoralism in Lapland are two distinct problems. From an ethnological viewpoint the distinction is notable; sociologically this delineation is critical to an understanding of the relationship between full-scale pastoral economy and key social changes that have emerged in Lapland. Yet, despite an enormous volume of documentation and interpretation, the precise chronology of the hunting-fishing, reindeer breeding, and full-scale pastoralism phases in Lapland have not been fixed with even near-exactitude. It is the purpose of this paper to examine major attempts to resolve the time sequence of Lapp reindeer economy and to suggest a greater time depth than has been given heretofore for the development of full-scale reindeer herding, i.e., reindeer pastoralism. The differentiation between the intensive phase of herding during which animals were important essentially for their milk and as