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Objective: We explore how parental health and stress shape the rearing of preteen children in the rural Ozark Mountains. Background: Identifying concerns that impact preteen parents' health and stress levels may facilitate understanding ways to promote resilience and happiness for families in underserved rural communities. Methods: Using an interpretive phenomenological approach grounded in Lazarus's stress and coping paradigm, the current qualitative study used semistructured interviews with 20 White parents in the rural area of the Ozark Mountains who had at least one child born between 2008–2011. Results: Study participants' stories revealed that stressors related to parenting preteen children were rooted in stress from mental health or indirectly tied to social roles, such as occupational stress or financial constraints. Conclusion: Interventions and tools need to be developed that are specific to the culture of rural areas and that focus on families as an essential part of developing resilience and happiness and mitigating the adverse effects of stress. Implications: Interventions focused on families need to include diverse social factors that impact family resilience and happiness and include education to increase health literacy, family supports related to improving connections between parents and their preteen children, family tax credits to reduce hardships for parents, a tool for screening parents for stress, and expansion of telehealth opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) participation among rural, low-income families, by income level, and investigated whether nonparticipation corresponds with increased financial distress. Rates of EITC participation among 314 rural low-income mothers were lower than national averages, especially among the lowest earners. There was, however, an increase from one year to the next, perhaps because of study involvement. Eligible families that did not participate in the EITC experienced greater income inadequacy and economic loss. Professionals who work with families in rural areas may increase EITC participation through outreach to the lowest earning families by emphasizing the need to file tax returns, discussing the potential size of the benefit, and helping families gain access to free tax preparation services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parenting confidence can be undermined by the presence of frequent or persistent health problems, particularly for people living in rural communities that have limited access to adequate health care. However, little is known about how minor health problems in the family impact parenting. The current study examined single and coresident mothers’ parent confidence in relation to family health problems and parental support in a sample of 303 low-income, rural mothers with young children from 14 states. Results show that the presence of family health problems was negatively associated with parent confidence. For coresident mothers, there was an indirect relationship through perceived parental support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although reports of intimate partner violence (IPV) decrease with age, a significant number of aging women experience IPV in their relationships. The structure and culture of rural environments may inadvertently conceal violence against aging women and inhibit prevention and treatment efforts. Guided by an ecological community framework, 3 focus groups involving 24 professionals working with victims of IPV in rural Kentucky and in-depth interviews with 10 aging rural women who had experienced IPV were conducted to examine the trajectory of, and community responses to, violence in late life. Findings revealed multiple interacting influences on IPV of aging women in rural areas including the women’s families and resources, culture and locality, religion, community support, and government entities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The agricultural economy in the United States has relied heavily on migrant farmworkers and, in particular, on Latinos. However, migrant families remain one of the most disadvantaged groups in the United States. This research focuses on a subsample of migrant families of Mexican origin ( n= 13), who participated in the Rural Families Speak multistate study. Qualitative findings described numerous challenges that Mexican-origin migrant families continue to experience. Results were also illustrative of the resilience of migrant families, which is influenced by specific Latino cultural values and is reflected in the successful adaptation of these families to the challenges associated with a migrant lifestyle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this qualitative study was to better understand the experience of wage-earning women in the context of rural economic restructuring. An ecological and life course theoretical framework was used. Nine community leaders and 17 wage-earning women residing in a rural northern Michigan county participated in semistructured interviews, and the prevailing economic concern was low wages and lack of jobs with benefits. Women workers were affected by factors such as ties to rural family business, childcare concerns, and long commutes to work and children's schools. Informal social support and family ties were identified as reasons for remaining in these challenging circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very little research has examined the experiences of Black and White rural battered women. In this exploratory study of 88 participants, 30 rural battered women who sought assistance from domestic violence shelters in southwest Virginia were interviewed. Black and White rural women's experiences in the shelters, helpseeking, and perceived social support during and after their stay in the shelter were compared. Future research directions and suggestions to improve services are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested a hypothetical model linking maternal education and maternal coping behavior with parent-child relationship quality, and in turn, children's self-regulatory behavior and mental health difficulties. Consistent with predictions, mothers’ use of active coping behaviors predicted more positive parent-child relationship quality, greater child self-regulatory behavior, and fewer perceived behavioral and emotional difficulties in children. Implications of these findings for intervention with rural African American mothers are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenomenological analysis was used to understand how rural low-income families accessed and used child-care resources to meet the needs of their families using data from Wave I of the Rural Families Speak Project. In the aftermath of welfare reform, results highlight the continuing need for policy aimed at building stronger supports for families with inadequate access to child care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural family counselors, family life educators, and Cooperative Extension agents continue to face the task of helping farm families deal wth the aftermath of the farm crisis. The task is especially difficult when more than one generation is involved. This article presents a model which blends the family and work spheres into an exchange-based model of family interaction in two-generation farm families. Specific recommendations are made to help rural family practitioners better understand and work with two-generation farm families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the relationship between economic distress and change in marital quality among farm families in Nebraska. The effect of the recent economic crisis in agriculture on farm marriages has been a topic of concern to family therapists, family life educators, and policymakers as well as to scholars attempting to understand the relation between economic hardship and family relations. The model proposed is designed to answer four specific research questions. Is there an effect of economic distress on declines in marital quality between 1981 and 1986? If this effect is present, to what extent is it mediated by changes in depression between the two waves? Do these effects differ for husbands and wives? Is the effect of economic distress on change in marital quality greater for individuals who had higher initial rates of personal instability in 1981? Data for this study came from the Nebraska Annual Social Indicators Survey which entails telephone interviews with a representative sample of residents of the state. Changes in total family income over the study period were considered as an additional component, but rejected. Income of farm households is difficult to assess and is fraught with measurement error. Debt-to-assets ratio is another common indicator of economic problems on the farm. While there was not enough information included on the survey to adequately measure this ratio, the close relationship between presence of farm debt and the economic distress measure suggests that the availability of the measure would add little to the analysis.

Currently there is a high level of interest in retirement of farmers because of an aging farm population and concern that the "farm crisis" may have disrupted succession patterns. The purpose of this study is to describe the process of exit from farm businesses of a group of older farmers and to determine the relationship between goals of family succession and behaviors in the exit phase. A sequence of exit from work, management, and ownership is found. Farmers who value continuity are most likely to involve sons in management of the operation. Programs for two-generation farm families may be useful in the early part of the exit phase while estate planning information and programs may be more appropriate to those in the latter part of the process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This longitudinal study of 724 rural families in nine central states investigates the potential effects of young adult children's leaving and returning home upon midlife rural fathers and their family relationships. As expected, only a minority of the rural fathers report distress or unhappiness over either the leaving home or returning home of a young adult child. However, when only the youngest children's leaving is considered, the farm fathers are significantly lower than the rural/nonfarm fathers on indicators of individual well-being and on marital and family satisfaction. More than twice as many farm fathers report distress and feeling bad when the child who left is the youngest child. On the other hand, the returning of adult children to the farm home may be a "mixed blessing" to farm fathers. Several implications of the findings are suggested for family interventionists who work with farm and other rural families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the perceptions of residents of Montana as one rural subgroup regarding health, health needs, and health care services. Selected qualitative data from ethnographic studies and quantitative data from a survey are presented, contrasted, and discussed. Information related to physical and mental health, social support systems, and service use is provided. The following major concepts are derived from the data: health as the ability to work, self-help, and "newcomer" vs. "old timer." The implications of each concept are examined in relation to the development and implementation of health care and related human service programs for rural populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fifteen rural home-working families were examined for their allocation of work time. Utilizing interviews, observations, and daily logs to draw conclusions, families were found to display marked variability in work hour and work day patterns, both individual and across the group. Both work days and allocated work times were punctuated by interruptions for child care and household chores, resulting in work/family time interaction rather than compartmentalization. Implications for considering the distinctive experiences of work and family life in such homes are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated conjugal role organization in retired rural couples. Three major aspects of the conjugal relationship were examined: division of household tasks, decision-making patterns, and leisure activities shared by the couple. Interviews were conducted with 149 couples who participated in the retirement substudy of an 8-year epidemiological investigation of two rural counties in Iowa. Results showed that rural couples: (a) exhibited a traditional, gender-differentiated division of household tasks, but that household role segregation decreased significantly after retirement; (b) made a majority of decisions jointly during retirement, with joint decision making increasing significantly after retirement; (c) participated in a large number of joint leisure activities during retirement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to explore effects of unemployment on stress with rural nonfarm families. Specifically, relationships were analyzed among increases in financial management, increases in financial arguments, and coping resources on stress. Eighty-eight husbands and wives (44 couples) participated in the study. The study determined that increases in financial arguments are more predictive of stress than actual changes in financial management, especially for wives. Avoidance coping was predictive of stress and mediated the relationship between financial arguments and stress for both husbands and wives. Implications for counselors and educators are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the scope of the present farm crisis, the issue of farm family stress has become an area of strong interest for family life educators, social workers, counselors, and county extension agents. This article reviews current resource materials available to help educators, counselors, and others who work with rural families in an effort to support them in crisis, to facilitate their decision making and long-range planning, and to foster their problem solving efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparing a sample of rural husbands and wives with a sample of urban husbands and wives over a range of variables that are fundamental to contemporary marriage and family, the joint issues of differences by county of residence and by sex are explored. It turns out that the most significant differences emerge over education and gender role preferences--rural women and men are less well educated and more gender role traditional than urban women and men. Thus, in planning programs to aid rural families and/or to counsel them, the family professional may wish to focus on the potential benefits to rural women (and men) of expanding their range of gender role-related options, alongside increasing access to those options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American farm families can be helped by family scientists. These professionals can benefit from an understanding of recent farm legislation and tax policies. Family intervention strategies are discussed in the larger context of macroeconomic and political forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 1980s a variety of economic forces have contributed to a crisis in agriculture. This economic crisis has led to record numbers of farm foreclosures, closings of rural businesses, and decreased viability of some rural communities. The evidence suggests that these economic problems have led to individual, family, and community problems. An increasing number of local, state, and federal organizations and government bodies have initiated efforts to address these rural concerns. In this article an empowerment strategy will be considered as a possible approach to rural revitalization. Several programs that have utilized an empowerment process will be examined. Finally, additional efforts based on empowerment principles will be suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An adolescent leaving home is a normative loss for parents but one that remains ambiguous since the adolescent continues to come and go. Seventy rural and urban mid-life couples were studied with responses from both fathers and mothers. The major hypothesis is that the more parents perceive their adolescent as psychologically present in spite of physical absence, the more parents will experience dysfunction. Differences between rural and urban couples were few, but gender differences appeared salient. Professionals may too easily accept the assumption that fathers are not bothered when their children leave home. This preliminary study has clarified hypotheses for further testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conjugal labor involvement of rural couples is based on the employment status and number of jobs held by both husband and wife. A significant proportion of rural couples are underemployed (e.g., neither spouse is employed) as well as overemployed (e.g., one or both spouses hold two or more jobs). Conjugal labor involvement types are distinctive patterns for integrating work and family roles and are significantly associated with educational level, age, life-course stage, farm occupation and residence, and husband's housework involvement. However, as suggested by status enhancement theory, couples' adoption of distinctive patterns of labor involvement is not associated with significant differences in marital quality as indicated by levels of tension, sociability, and communication. Data from a statewide mail survey of nonmetropolitan households (N = 770 couples) are examined with multivariate analyses. Implications for family counseling and policy are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Families who are losing or have lost their farm may receive no help or support from some or all of their neighbors. This article offers, from a systems perspective, an analysis of psychological and social forces which may limit the support that families who are losing their farm seek from their neighbors and that their neighbors offer them. Among the many factors discussed are the ways in which non-help can be intended as help, blaming of victims, farm community values, the breakdown of exchange and other bases of community, the fear of others' neediness or emotionality, the ambiguous nature of losses like farm losses that are spread out over months or even years, and other factors that make a farm family in trouble pull back from neighbors. Family life education can play an important role in getting past these limits, freeing members of communities to offer and accept support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the stressors and coping strategies of two-generation farm families. Results identified four key factors creating stressors for family members. Also, four main strategies that family members used to cope with stressors were identified. Significant differences in stressors and coping strategies were found between generations and among fathers, mothers, sons, and daughters-in-law. Implications for researchers, practitioners working with farm families, and educators were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examined the prevalence of stress symptoms among 808 farm men and women, identified the occupational stressors that were associated with high stress levels, and provided diagnostic indicants of symptoms most predictive of overall high stress levels. The relevance of these findings to educational preventative programming is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loss of the farm due to the agricultural crisis is argued to result in differential responses by fatuities, depending upon whether shared agricultural goals originate primarily from financial or familial motivations, Farm management types developed by Salamon (1985) are combined with the family stress model of McCubbin and Patterson (1983) in developing a potential framework for identifying contrasting capabilities and definitions possessed by families holding divergent agricultural goals. An instrument based on the application of stress concepts to farm family research findings is presented for use in counseling families who have lost or are losing their farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of the recent farm crisis, many rural families are finding themselves under severe stress. Utilizing McCubbin and Patterson's "Double ABCX Model" of family stress (1983), data from 15 farm families who had come into the Kansas State University Family Center for therapy were given the appropriate forms at intake, at termination, and at a 3-month phone follow-up. Farm families were more reluctant to join into therapy. Major interventions which were employed included reframing, mobilizing resources, and utilizing more straightforward, less indirect means of intervention. The rural families showed a slightly better increase in well-being over the course of therapy than the general sample of clients. However, the rural families' stress levels were not lowered as much as the general sample over the course of therapy and their general life satisfaction was lower at the 3-month follow-up than the general population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "farm crisis" has meant that many rural professionals have been called upon to intervene with farm families under stress. The purpose of this article is to provide empirical support for the development of stress management programs for such families. The results suggest that the task of family life educators is to help farm men and women augment their personal and social resources while managing high financial and work demands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A need has been identified for providing low-cost family life information for young families. This paper contains a report of a learn-at-home delivery system employed by the University of Wisconsin-Extension. A series of 10 packets, covering parenthood, family management, consumer decision-making, credit, and nutrition was developed and the system was evaluated. The results indicated that this delivery system was both efficient and effective. Implications for future programming are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This section introduces a series of articles which deal with rural family relations.