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Sprouting can enhance the bioavailability and stimulate the production of health-promoting compounds. This research explored the potential health benefits of wheat sprouting, focusing on underexplored areas in existing literature such as alterations in phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity and glutathione levels during wheat sprouting. Furthermore, special attention was directed toward asparagine (Asn), the main precursor of acrylamide formation, as regulatory agencies are actively seeking to impose limitations on the presence of acrylamide in baked products. The results demonstrate elevated levels of PAL (4.5-fold at 48 h of sprouting), antioxidants, and total phenolics (1.32 mg gallic acid equivalent/g dry matter at 72 h of sprouting), coupled with a reduction in Asn (i.e. 11-fold at 48 h of sprouting) and glutathione concentrations, after wheat sprouting. These findings suggest that sprouting can unlock health-promoting properties in wheat. Optimizing the sprouting process to harness these benefits, however, may have implications for the techno-functionality of wheat flour in food processing. [Display omitted] • Study underscores whole wheat and controlled sprouting for enhanced nutrition. • Research explores overlooked aspects in wheat sprouting. • Sprouting increased the phenylalanine-ammonia lyase activity levels of wheat. • The highest level of free glutathione was found in the raw wheat samples. • A reduction was observed in the free Asn level as a function of sprouting time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To illustrate the mechnism of the better flavor and color in combined fermented sausages than single fermentation with L. sakei , the growth behavior, pH, and metabolomics of L. sakei in single fermentation and in combination with S. carnosus at 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h were studied, and the sensory evaluation of fermented beef sausage was conducted. Through KEGG topology analysis found that L. sakei is related to caffeine metabolism and citrate cycle, L. sakei and S. carnosus are related to metabolism of purine metabolism, caffeine metabolism, and alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism. Compared with L. sakei fermentation alone, the compound fermentation with S. carnosus increased the content of asparagine. The content of the bitter substance tyrosine decreased during the compound fermentation. As starter cultures for the L. sakei applied to provide a basis for the fermented beef sausage. [Display omitted] • The metabolism of L. sakei is related to two metabolic pathways. • The metabolism of L. sakei and S. carnosus is related to three metabolic pathways. • Play a synergistic role in reducing guanosine concentration during fermentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Southern Chile native potatoes are an interesting raw material to produce novel snacks like colored potato chips. These novel products should be comprehensively evaluated for the presence of undesirable compounds such as acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furan, the main neoformed contaminants in starchy rich fried foods. This study evaluated the neoformed contaminant levels and oil content on chips made from eleven Chilean potato accessions and compared them with commercial samples. The neoformed contaminant contents were related to Maillard reaction precursor levels (reducing sugars and asparagine) and secondary metabolites (phenolic compounds and carotenoids). Neoformed contaminants correlated well among them and were weakly correlated with reducing sugars and asparagine. Acrylamide level in native potato chips ranged from 738.2 to 1998.6 μg kg−1 while from 592.6 to 2390.5 μg kg−1 in commercial samples. Thus, there is need to implement neoformed contaminant mitigation strategies at different steps of the production chain of colored potato chips. [Display omitted] • Neo-formed contaminants in chips made from Chilean potato genotypes is reported. • High cultivar dependance was observed in neoformed contaminants and Maillard precursors. • Colored chips presented on average higher acrylamide levels than conventional ones. • Furan and 5-HMF levels correlated positively with acrylamide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid methods for amino acid determination are desired to reduce running times, and the main factors involved in the rapid separation of these compounds in HPLC are the columns, solvents, and gradient. The present study refers to a method optimization to rapidly analyze 19 amino acids in RP-HPLC/DAD with pre-column derivatization using o-phthalaldehyde. To evaluate the method's robustness, Indian Pale Ale-IPA beers and wines from the San Francisco Valley-SFV and Chapada Diamantina-CHD, Brazil, were analyzed. The method showed acceptable linearity (R2 > 0.992), precision (CV < 3.96%), recovery (74.2–113%), detection limits (<0.56 mg/L), and quantification limits (<3.62 mg/L) and separation gradient in 18.5 min. IPA beers were discriminated from wines by arginine, asparagine, tryptophan, alanine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine contents. Furthermore, CHD wines were discriminated from SFV wines by asparagine, glutamine, arginine, cystine, tyrosine, and leucine. In conclusion, a rapid method for amino acid determination was optimized and validated for wines and beers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The formation of acrylamide from maltose was investigated. • Chemical reactions of acrylamide formation in french fries were modelled kinetically. • The model accounted for heat and moisture transfer during typical frying conditions. • Maltose contributed <10% to total acrylamide formation. • The contribution from Maillard reaction vs. sugar-asparagine conjugates is discussed. Abstract In light of a recent update in EU regulations governing levels of acrylamide in foodstuffs, further understanding of the role of different precursors is fundamental to extending mitigation strategies into a wider product range. Kinetic modelling was used to investigate the role of maltose in the formation of acrylamide during the finish-frying of french fries. The maltose concentration of raw white potato strips was systematically increased from 0 to 1.4% to observe the effect of this reducing disaccharide on acrylamide formation. A mathematical model, incorporating glucose, fructose and maltose and based on known Maillard reaction pathways, was developed which showed that acrylamide formation from maltose only contributed <10% to the total acrylamide. An additional kinetic model allowed for the formation of acrylamide directly from sugar-asparagine glycoconjugates. This model suggested that under these conditions, it is unlikely that acrylamide is formed directly from the maltose-asparagine conjugate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An observational cross-sectional pilot study in 73 Spanish households was conducted to evaluate the impact of consumer practices on the formation of acrylamide during the preparation of French fries from fresh potatoes applying one stage frying. 45.2% of samples presented acrylamide concentrations above the benchmark level for French fries (500 µg/kg). 6.9% of samples exceeded 2000 µg/kg and the 95th percentile was 2028 µg/kg. The median and average values were significantly higher than the EFSA report for this food category, suggesting that the total exposure to acrylamide by the population could be underestimated. In this randomised scenario of cooking practices, the content of reducing sugar and asparagine did not explain the acrylamide levels. However, the chromatic parameter a ∗ of the fried potato was a powerful tool to classify the samples according to the acrylamide benchmark level regardless of the agronomical characteristics of the potato or the consumer practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new enzymatic methodology is herein proposed to measure free asparagine content in wheat grains and to predict their potential for Maillard reaction products. Our model estimates the acrylamide levels generated during the industrial heat treatment of whole-grain wheat based on free asparagine and glucose measurements. We selected fifteen wheat varieties currently grown in Belgium as benchmark for the present study. While conventional chromatographic methods require a long and tedious multi-step sample preparation, the proposed method takes advantage of being simple and quick. Statistical analysis of free asparagine content indicates that selected wheat varieties can be classified into seven content levels from 0.0149% to 0.0216% of the dry matter. Based on our analysis, the varieties KWS Ozon, Benchmark and Pionier appears to be the most suitable for thermal processing (i.e. cooking applications). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proanthocyanidins with different structures were prepared from three condensed tannin-rich plant materials and then characterized using HPLC–ESI-MS coupled with thiolysis and MALDI-TOF MS. Their effects on acrylamide formation in asparagine-glucose models and fried potato crisps were determined. Results showed that all proanthocyanidins significantly and dose dependently mitigated acrylamide formation at concentrations of 50, 100 and 200 µg/mL in chemical model system. Using the food model, acrylamide formation were inhibited when potato crisps were soaked in 0.01–1 mg/mL proanthocyanidin solutions for 15 min at room temperature before frying. Proanthocyanidins reduced up to 44.2% of the acrylamide level as concentration was increased to 0.1 mg/mL, whereas higher concentration resulted in a decrease of inhibition. B-type proanthocyanidins had stronger inhibitory activity than A-type. Unit composition and DP had nearly no effect on their inhibitory activity based on same mass. This study showed that proanthocyanidins with various structures were promising additives to mitigate harmful acrylamide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work investigated the underlying formation of acrylamide from amino acids in frying oils during high temperatures and at different times via modeling systems. Eighteen amino acids were used in order to determine which one was more effective on acrylamide production. Significantly the highest amount of acrylamide was produced from asparagine (5987.5 µg/kg) and the lowest from phenylalanine (9.25 µg/kg). A constant amount of asparagine and glutamine in palm olein and soy bean oils was heated up in modelling system at different temperatures (160, 180 and 200 °C) and times (1.5, 3, 4.5, 6, 7.5 min). The highest amount of acrylamide was found at 200 °C for 7.5 min (9317 and 8511 µg/kg) and lowest at 160 °C for 1.5 min (156 and 254 µg/kg) in both frying oils and both amino acids. Direct correlations have been found between time (R 2 = 0.884), temperature (R 2 = 0.951) and amount of acrylamide formation, both at p < 0.05. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aims to clarify the interactions that occur in a food model system consisting of glucose, asparagine and chitosans. Low molecular weight chitosan exerted a potent inhibitory effect (46.8%) on acrylamide and Maillard reaction products (MRPs) (>52.6%), respectively. Compared to a previous study conducted using the fructose system, the novel findings of this research demonstrate that the formation of acrylamide and Maillard reaction products was lower with glucose than with fructose when they were used as reducing sugars in food model systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free asparagine concentration, which is the determining factor for acrylamide-forming potential in cereals, was measured in grain from wheat grown in field trials in the United Kingdom in 2011–2012 and 2012–2013. There were 25 varieties in 2012 and 59 in 2013, with eleven present in both trials. The trials were split-plot, with half of each plot supplied with sulphur and the other half not. The varietal means (mmol per kg) for free asparagine in the sulphur-fed wheat ranged from 1.521 to 2.687 in 2011–2012 and 0.708 to 11.29 in 2012–2013. Eight varieties were identified as having consistently low free asparagine concentration. There was a differential response of varieties to sulphur, and much higher levels of free asparagine in 2012–2013 versus 2011–2012. Given the short commercial lifespan of some wheat varieties, it is concluded that information on free asparagine concentration should be made available when a variety is launched. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) formation during biscuit baking. Four types of wheat flour with different molar ratios of total fructose and glucose to asparagine were investigated. Nevertheless, the molar ratio in all four biscuit doughs exceeded one after proofing due to enzyme action. Data obtained after baking were used to develop a mechanistic model, based on the asparagine-related pathway, for acrylamide and HMF formation in the four baked biscuit types. Asparagine reacted with fructose to form a Schiff base before decarboxylation to produce acrylamide without Amadori rearrangement product and sugar fragmentation. Fructose contributed considerably to acrylamide formation and to HMF formation via caramelization in all four biscuit types. No clear correlation was found between acrylamide and HMF in baked biscuits, nor between asparagine and the sum of glucose and fructose concentrations in the wheat flour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of ripening on the formation of acrylamide in deep fried plantain chips made from Nendran variety ( Musa paradisiaca ) was investigated. The precursors of acrylamide formation, reducing sugars (glucose and fructose) and ten major amino acids, were quantified during different stages of ripening using HPLC and correlated with acrylamide formation. The total phenolic content and total flavonoid content were also estimated and correlated with acrylamide formation. Both glucose and fructose increased during ripening and demonstrated a positive correlation on formation of acrylamide (correlation coefficient of r = 0.95 and 0.94 respectively (p < 0.05), whereas asparagine, was poorly correlated (p > 0.05). The decreased levels of phenolic content during ripening of plantain were negatively correlated with acrylamide formation in the deep fried chips prepared. Thus the selection of proper ripening stage renders reduced formation of acrylamide in plantain chips to a reasonable extend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effect of flavanols and their derivatives on acrylamide formation under low-moisture conditions via prediction using the support vector regression (SVR) approach. Acrylamide was generated in a potato-based equimolar asparagine–reducing sugar model system through oven heating. Both positive and negative effects were observed when the flavonoid treatment ranged 1–10,000 μmol/L. Flavanols and derivatives (100 μmol/L) suppress the acrylamide formation within a range of 59.9–78.2%, while their maximal promotion effects ranged from 2.15-fold to 2.84-fold for the control at a concentration of 10,000 μmol/L. The correlations between inhibition rates and changes in Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity (ΔTEAC) ( R TEAC-DPPH = 0.878, R TEAC-ABTS = 0.882, R TEAC-FRAP = 0.871) were better than promotion rates ( R TEAC-DPPH = 0.815, R TEAC-ABTS = 0.749, R TEAC-FRAP = 0.841). Using ΔTEAC as variables, an optimized SVR model could robustly serve as a new predictive tool for estimating the effect ( R : 0.783–0.880), the fitting performance of which was slightly better than that of multiple linear regression model ( R : 0.754–0.880). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The method of liquid chromatographic tandem mass spectrometry was utilized and modified to confirm and quantify acrylamide in heating cooking oil and animal fat. Heating asparagine with various cooking oils and animal fat at 180 °C produced varying amounts of acrylamide. The acrylamide in the different cooking oils and animal fat using a constant amount of asparagine was measured. Cooking oils were also examined for peroxide, anisidine and iodine values (or oxidation values). A direct correlation was observed between oxidation values and acrylamide formation in different cooking oils. Significantly less acrylamide was produced in saturated animal fat than in unsaturated cooking oil, with 366 ng/g in lard and 211 ng/g in ghee versus 2447 ng/g in soy oil, followed by palm olein with 1442 ng/g. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Asparaginase achieved 54–96% acrylamide reduction in some of bakery products. • Water activity was more effective than pH on asparaginase activity. • Asparaginase activity increased by resting of dough and increasing enzyme dosage. • A positive correlation between asparagine and acrylamide except dough a w below 0.7. • Asparaginase applications did not adversely affect the surface color or spread ratio. Effect of asparaginase was tested in different biscuit and cracker doughs, and wafer batter by changing processing conditions such as enzyme dosage, dough resting time and temperature, mixing speed and time, and mixing procedure of the recipe components. Acrylamide reductions achieved were 96, 80, 54% in rotary cut biscuits, crackers and wire cut cookies, respectively due to high water activity of their dough. Asparaginase did not affect surface color or spread ratio. There was a positive correlation between asparagine content and acrylamide formation except for rotary molded biscuit doughs. No significant decrease was found in rotary molded biscuits because of low water (water activity of 0.70) and high fat content. This indicated that water activity of dough is an important factor for the effectiveness of asparaginase treatment. The results suggested that water activity value exceeding 0.75 is needed in the dough to effectively reduce asparagine, so acrylamide in bakery products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Asparagine concentration was equalized in all biscuit formulas. • The type of flour can strongly affect acrylamide formation in biscuits. • Lupin flour was not effective in reducing acrylamide content in biscuits. • Chickpea flour did not influence the texture and colour of the final biscuits. • The use of chickpea flour is a promising strategy for acrylamide control in biscuits. Asparagine and sugars are direct precursors of acrylamide; however, proteins and fibres can also influence it. In this study, biscuits prepared replacing wheat flour with increasing concentrations (20, 40, 60%) of lupin or chickpea flour were investigated. Asparagine concentration was equalized in all formulas to isolate the effect of other flour characteristics on the acrylamide formation during baking. The results showed that replacing wheat flour with lupin flour increased acrylamide from 583.9 up to 1443 µg/kg after 9 min of baking, while 20–40% chickpea flour reduced acrylamide to 354.4–312.6 µg/kg. The acrylamide reduction using chickpea was attributed to the lower interaction between precursors resulting from both the coarser particle size and the lower reactivity of carbohydrate in presence of chickpea proteins. Chickpea addition did not affect the colour and texture of biscuits, opening the possibility for large-scale implementation of this mitigation strategy in formulas with a similar initial asparagine content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strategies proposed for reducing the formation of the suspected carcinogen acrylamide in cooked foods often rely on a reduction in the extent of the Maillard reaction, in which acrylamide is formed from the reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars. However, the Maillard reaction also provides desirable sensory attributes of cooked foods. Mitigation procedures that modify the Maillard reaction may negatively affect flavour and colour. The use of asparaginase to convert asparagine to aspartic acid may provide a means to reduce acrylamide formation, while maintaining sensory quality. This review collates research on the use of enzymes, asparaginase in particular, to mitigate acrylamide formation. Asparaginase is a powerful tool for the food industry and it is likely that its use will increase. However, the potential adverse effects of asparaginase treatment on sensory properties of cooked foods and the need to achieve sufficient enzyme–substrate contact remain areas for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formation of acrylamide in model Maillard reaction systems containing phenolic compounds was examined, with regards to phenolic type, concentration, and model system matrix. In dry glyoxal/asparagine waxy maize starch (WMS) systems, 9 out of 10 examined phenolics demonstrated an inhibiting effect, with the most significant reductions (55–60%) observed for caffeoylquinic acids. In WMS glucose/asparagine systems, examination of three different concentrations (0.1, 0.5 and 1 μmol/g WMS) suggested a ‘minimum effective concentration’ for epicatechin and caffeic acid, whilst addition of caffeoylquinic acids resulted in dose-dependent acrylamide reduction (25–75%). The discordant results of further studies utilising different matrices (dry and wet-to-dry) indicated that, apart from the nature and chemical reactivity, the matrix and the physical state of the reactants might be important for acrylamide formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the effects of sugar type on the reaction mechanism for formation of acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) during the baking of biscuits at 200 °C using multiresponse modelling. Four types of biscuits were prepared: (1) with sucrose, (2) with glucose and fructose, (3) with fructose only and (4) with glucose only. Experimental data showed that HMF concentration was highest in biscuits with glucose and fructose, whereas acrylamide concentration was highest in biscuits with glucose, also having the highest asparagine concentration. Proposed mechanistic models suggested that HMF is formed via caramelisation and that acrylamide formation follows the specific amino acid route, i.e., reducing sugars react with asparagine to form the Schiff base before decarboxylation, to generate acrylamide without the Amadori rearrangement product and sugar fragmentation. Study results contribute to understanding chemical reaction pathways in real food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acrylamide (AA) is a known lethal neurotoxin and carcinogen. AA is formed in foods during the browning process by the Maillard reaction of glucose (GL) with asparagine (AS). For the first time, the simultaneous online preconcentration and separation of AA, AS and GL using analyte focusing by ionic liquid micelle collapse capillary electrophoresis (AFILMC) was presented. Samples were prepared in a 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (BMIMBr) micellar matrix with a conductivity 4 times greater than that of the running buffer (12.5 mmol L −1 phosphate buffer at pH 8.5). Samples were hydrodynamically injected into a fused silica capillary at 25.0 mbar for 25.0 s. Separations were performed by applying a voltage of 25.0 kV and a detection at 200.0 nm. To sufficiently reduce BMIMBr adsorption on the interior surface of capillary, an appropriate rinsing procedure by hydrochloric acid and water was optimized. AFILMC measurements of analytes within the concentration range of 0.05–10.0 μmol L −1 achieved adequate reproducibility and accuracy with RSD 1.14–3.42% ( n = 15) and recovery 98.0–110.0%, respectively. Limits of detections were 0.71 ng g −1 AA, 1.06 ng g −1 AS and 27.02 ng g −1 GL with linearity ranged between 2.2 and 1800 ng g −1 . The coupling of AFILMC with IL based ultrasonic assisted extraction (ILUAE) was successfully applied to the efficient extraction and determination of AA, AS and GL in bread samples. The structure of ILs has significant effects on the extraction efficiency of analytes. The optimal extraction efficiency (97.8%) was achieved by an aqueous extraction with 4:14 ratio of sample: 3.0 mol L −1 BMIMBr followed by sonication at 35 °C. The proposed combination of ILUAE and AFILMC was simple, ecofriendly, reliable and inexpensive to analyze a toxic compound and its precursors in bread which is applicable to food safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) relies on the topological distribution of the intense water NMR signal and may be used to report about changes in the internal structures of fruits associated to ripening, storing, pathogen infection. Herein the use of CEST–MRI (chemical exchange saturation transfer) is introduced to show that in addition to structural information, insights into the presence in the fruits of specific chemicals may be gained. Asparagine is present in plums at relatively high concentration (≈10–20 mM) and owns two amide protons (at 2.1 and 2.8 ppm down field from water) in slow exchange with water protons. By irradiating the amide resonances with a proper rf-field it is possible to transfer saturated magnetization to the “bulk” water signal. The attained change in signal intensity reflects the extent of prototropic exchange between amide and water protons that is modulated by the local pH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cit significantly enhanced the formation of AA in a dose-dependent manner. • Cit rather than its oxidation product played a major role in the formation of AA. • Cit directly reacted with Asn via the Maillard reaction producing AA. • Cit promoted the formation of AA between Asn and Glc. This work aimed to evaluate the role of citral (Cit) in the formation of acrylamide (AA) in model systems. The asparagine (Asn)/glucose (Glc), Asn/Glc/ginger essential oil (GEO), and Asn/Glc/Cit model systems were prepared and analysed by UPLC-MS/MS. Cit was implicated to be a major product that contributed to the enhancement of AA formation by GEO. The addition of Cit significantly enhanced the formation of AA in the Asn/Glc model system in a dose-dependent manner. Further analysis showed Cit rather than its oxidation product played a major role in AA formation. Cit not only directly reacted with Asn via the Maillard reaction producing AA but also promoted the formation of AA between Asn and Glc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We determined β-ODAP, homoarginine and asparagine in grass pea seeds (Lathyrus sativus). [•] Grass pea local landraces were collected from various regions of Turkey. [•] A simple, fast capillary electrophoretic method with sample stacking is proposed and validated. [•] A positive correlation between homoarginine and β-ODAP contents was statistically proven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The total protein loss of sea cucumber in high pressure steaming was the lowest. • Proteins undergoes unspecific hydrolysis during the thermal processing. • The protein residues with the highest thermal-induced hydrolysis frequency were Phe, Leu, Asn, and Tyr. Thermal processing is the most frequently adopted processing technology for sea cucumbers, which can significantly affect their protein composition. In this paper, three thermal processing methods high pressure steaming (HPS), atmospheric pressure boiling (APB), and atmospheric pressure steaming (APS) were adopted and protein compositions of both body walls and cooking liquors by thermal processing stichopus japonicus were systematically analysis by proteomic strategy. The total proteins loss rates of body walls were 11.6%, 13.0%, and 14.8% for HPS, APS, and APB methods, respectively. However, the main types of protein composition were retained. Similar mechanisms of protein loss may exist even if different thermal processing were applied. The most frequent hydrolysis sites in thermal processing were phenylalanine, leucine, asparagine, and tyrosine at both C and N terminals. This study provides theoretical guidance for optimizing the industry thermal processing of sea cucumbers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acrylamide (AA) is a potential carcinogen formed during the process of food heating. Pectin is natural food additive widely presented in fruits and vegetables. This study aimed at investigating the influence of the addition of high methoxyl apple pectin (esterification degree: 82.6%) on AA inhibition in the asparagine (Asn)/glucose (Glc) model system. Results showed that temperature (120-180 °C), pH value (6.0-7.2), pectin addition (0.2-1.0%, w/v), substrate concentration (0.01-0.5 M) and molar ratio of Asn/Glc (5:1-1:10) had significant influence on inhibition of pectin on AA formation. With adding 1.0% (w/v) pectin, the pH value, Glc consumption and Schiff base abundance declined in Asn/Glc model system. Moreover, heating treatment decreased the pH value, molecular weight, esterification degree and galacturonic acid content of pectin. Finally, the pectin degradation product was identified, which might compete with Glc for Asn in Maillard reaction, led to AA reduction. This study provided distinct evidence for controlling AA formation., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Abstract: The effect of addition of amaranth flour and amaranth protein isolate to both a glucose/asparagine model system and real foods (cookies, fried tortilla chips, and baked tortilla chips) was studied to analyse the acrylamide mitigating potential of this underexploited plant with attractive nutraceutical properties. Addition of amaranth flour, with a relatively low protein content (16.45%), did not mitigate acrylamide in either the model system or the studied foods. On the contrary, addition of amaranth protein isolate decreased acrylamide content by 35–40% in the model system, 89% in cookies, 51% in fried tortilla chips, and 62% in baked tortilla chips. This acrylamide reduction was obtained without change in the colour or the texture of the cookies. On the contrary, colour remained unchanged in tortilla chips, but the addition of amaranth protein isolate increased the hardness (16–36%) of the produced tortillas. Although a much more detailed sensory evaluation of cookies and tortilla chips prepared using amaranth protein isolate is needed, the above results suggest that the use of amaranth protein may be an interesting way to both mitigate acrylamide formation and improve nutritional properties of foods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The acrylamide levels in commercial and homemade Caribbean foods were determined by pre-derivatisation of acrylamide to 2-bromopropenamide and analysed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric (GC/MS) detection. Over 100 Caribbean food samples were analysed for the presence of acrylamide. These samples include: biscuits, breakfast cereals, banana chips and home-prepared foods: breadfruit; Artocarpus altilis, banana fritters, and dumplings. The limit of detection (LOD) for the GC/MS method was found to be dependent on the type of column used for the GC/MS analysis. The DB-1701 and the DB-VRX columns gave LODs of 20 and 4μg/kg, respectively. Acrylamide has not been found in raw foods or foods which have been cooked by boiling. Its content in all other foods had concentrations in the range, 65–3640μg/kg. The relationship between acrylamide levels and precursor concentration as well as the health implications of our findings are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The content of reducing sugars and asparagine, responsible for the formation of acrylamide, was determined in eight Indian potato varieties. Among these, Kufri chipsona-2 and Kufri lavkar showed the lowest level of reducing sugar (680.68±56.50mg/kg) and asparagine (2074.36±122.27mg/kg), respectively. The acrylamide content in potato chips prepared from Kufri chipsona-2, the variety that is used commercially in India for making potato chips was also the lowest. Irradiation of this variety of potatoes at the sprout inhibition dose of 60Gy and subsequent storage for six months showed a 10.7% lower content of reducing sugars at both 14 and 4°C. The acrylamide content was 8.41% and 6.95% lower in chips from irradiated potatoes stored at 14 and 4°C than the corresponding non-irradiated controls. The colour of the chips was also better in irradiated potatoes as judged from the L∗ and a∗ values. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Acrylamide is a neurotoxin and possible carcinogen, and concern has been voiced over human exposure to acrylamide in cooked foods. Processed potato products such as crisps and French fries are often cited as being particularly high in acrylamide. In this manuscript a sub-set of clonal progeny from a specific tetraploid potato breeding population has been assessed for acrylamide forming potential in stored tubers processed into crisps. The clone with the lowest acrylamide content in crisps had both low reducing sugars and asparagine contents. Our data show that, in the segregating breeding population used, both asparagine and reducing sugars levels needed to be taken into account to explain most of the variation in acrylamide and that selection for low levels of both metabolites should be targeted for crop improvement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A kinetic model for the formation of acrylamide in a fructose–asparagine reaction system at initial pH 5.5 is proposed, based on an approach called multiresponse kinetic modelling. The formation of acetic acid and formic acid from the degradation of fructose and its isomer glucose was included in the proposed kinetic model. The kinetic model suggests that the effect of temperature on acrylamide formation with fructose is more due to the preceding steps with the formation of the Schiff base. The use of fructose and lower pH resulted in a higher yield of acrylamide (3%), suggesting that both can play an important role in acrylamide mitigation. Furthermore, these models have shown that, at high temperatures (120–200°C), the Maillard reaction rapidly goes into the advanced stages, forming high amounts of organic acids and high molecular weight melanoidins. Overall, these mechanistic models provide more insight of the formation of acrylamide in a quantitative way. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The interaction effects of fermentation time and added asparagine and glycine on acrylamide precursors (asparagine and reducing sugars) in dough and content of acrylamide in yeast-leavened wheat bread were studied. Two experiments, with low and high levels of added asparagine (0–0.044 and 0.071–0.476g/100g flour, respectively), were performed. Glycine was added (0.042–0.380g/100g flour) only in the high asparagine addition experiment. The fermentation time, which was varied between 13 and 164min, showed a reducing effect on acrylamide precursors in the dough in both experiments (p <0.001). These effects of fermentation were more pronounced in the experiment with low asparagine levels, which resembled levels in ingredients. In contrast, fermentation time did not affect the content of glycine in the dough. Added asparagine increased the levels of asparagine in dough and of acrylamide in bread (p <0.001). A strong correlation was found between the contents of asparagine in the fermented dough and acrylamide in breads at all levels of asparagine. Glycine significantly increased the colour intensity and reduced the acrylamide in bread (p <0.001) with the latter effect being dependent on the level of asparagine. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Acrylamide formation in French fries was investigated in relation to blanching and asparaginase soaking treatments before final frying. Par-fried potatoes of Bintje variety were prepared by cutting strips (0.8×0.8×5cm) which were blanched at 75°C for 10min. Unblanched strips were used as the control. Control or blanched strips were then dried at 85°C for 10min and immediately partially fried at 175°C for 1min. Finally, frozen par-fried potatoes were fried at 175°C for 3min to obtain French fries. Pre-drying of raw or blanched potato strips did not generate acrylamide formation as expected. Partial frying of pre-dried control potato strips generated 370μg/kg of acrylamide and the final frying determined French fries with 2075μg/kg of acrylamide. When control potato strips were treated with a 10000 ASNU/l asparaginase solution at 40°C for 20min, the acrylamide formation in French fries was reduced by 30%. When blanched potato strips were treated in the same way, the produced French fries have 60% less acrylamide content than blanched strips without the enzyme treatment. Soaking of blanched potato strips (75°C, 10min) in an 10000 ASNU/l asparaginase solution at 40°C for 20min is an effective way to reduce acrylamide formation after frying by reducing the amount of one of its important precursors such as asparagine. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Microwave heating can be regarded as a possible way to produce a considerable amount of acrylamide. The present study investigated the formation of acrylamide in asparagine–glucose, asparagine–fructose and asparagine–sucrose microwave heating systems by the response surface methodology (RSM) and the orthogonal array methodology (OAM). The acrylamide content was rapidly quantified by a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Results of RSM study indicated that in the asparagine–glucose system, the acrylamide content increased in the combined condition of high temperature accompanying with short heating time (>190°C, <20min) or low temperature accompanying with long heating time (<180°C, >30min). In the asparagine–fructose system, the similar conclusion was made in the combined condition of high temperature accompanying with short heating time (>175°C, <20min) or low temperature accompanying with long heating time (<170°C, >25min). In the asparagine–sucrose system, the amount of acrylamide enhanced with the increase of both heating temperature and heating time. The fitted mathematic models were successfully applied to the quantification of acrylamide formation when the heating temperature and heating time fell into the ranges of 120–240°C and 5–35min simultaneously. OAM study showed that acrylamide is readily formed via heating binary precursors 5min at 180°C in the asparagine–glucose and asparagine–fructose systems. However, acrylamide is readily generated when the binary precursors are heated 15min at 180°C in the asparagine–sucrose system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]