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The impact of organizational characteristics on food safety management systems is already intensively studied. Recently, scientific research goes beyond the managerial and technical aspects of the food safety management system, incorporating the impact of human behavior by exploring the food safety climate in food companies. In this study the food safety climate in the Belgian food processing industry was investigated and correlations between food safety climate and organizational (general and quality-related) characteristics of food processing companies were assessed. Additionally, the factorial validity of the applied food safety climate assessment tool was investigated, using exploratory factor analysis. Data were gathered through an online survey. Overall, the food safety climate was perceived to be on a good level for most of the 136 responding companies. Companies with multiple sites in Belgium appeared to perceive the food safety climate better than one-site companies. Food companies providing more than one training session per year appeared to perceive their food safety climate significantly better than companies providing less training (p

Based on the information obtained from quality/food safety managers, hazard analysis worksheets (HAWs) and flow diagrams were identified, using the ABCD method, as the elements which generate the most extended areas of food safety management systems (FSMSs) based on HACCP procedures. In order to simplify this part of documentation, a shortened form of HAWs designed on the basis of a T-shaped matrix diagram (T-HAWs) was developed. T-HAWs were implemented on a trial basis in three small food businesses (SFBs) for a period of six months. After five months, documentation users evaluated the suitability of both the classic and the new forms of HAWs. The evaluation results were expressed in a numerical form as the documentation usability index (DUI), which values for the classic HAWs amounted from 0.55 to 1.1, and for T-HAWs ranged from 1.3 to 1.8. Student's t-test confirmed the existence of significant differences of the DUI values between both evaluated forms of the HAWs. The study demonstrates that the FSMSs documentation area may be a subject of research aimed at simplifying and reducing the volume of system documents through the use of effective methods and management tools. The T-HAWs developed in this work, in combination with a simplified flow diagram, provided an opportunity for a significant reduction in the classic HACCP plan, which may facilitate the implementation and application of the Codex HACCP principles and HACCP-based procedures in SFBs. Even though the T-HAWs were positively assessed by the users of HACCP documentation, certain limitations were identified, therefore the results of this study should be regarded as preliminary investigations which require to be continued with a greater number of SFBs representing a greater range of food industry sectors included.

Many environmental chemicals are known to be present in or on food. In particular, low income countries can suffer from the application of mostly banned and toxic chemicals, combined with inappropriate usage, which can lead to high food contamination. To safeguard human health, residues in food are generally identified with targeted chemical analysis. There is increasing awareness of the need to assess the biological effects of mixtures of contaminants potentially present in food, but few studies have applied in vitro bioassays for monitoring chemicals in food. The present study aimed to combine a simple extraction method with bioanalytical testing of chemicals in food. Sensitive bioassays focusing on activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and bacterial toxicity were applied to detect the presence of chemicals. Liquid-liquid extraction, which was selected due to reduced solvent demand and rapid sample treatment, was applied to a range of food types. Additionally, extracted strawberry washing water was also tested to assess the impact of food preparation and cleaning. Regarding extraction efficiency, the method was more effective for high water content samples (e.g. strawberries, tomatoes) compared to fatty (e.g. fish, meat) and high fiber (e.g. apples) samples. Hence, greater effects were observed for watery samples in the studied assays, including a biological response with the washing water. Future work should focus on improvement of the liquid-liquid extraction method to address the urgent need of a simple but reliable hazard assessment tool of food for low income countries.

Food Safety is a fundamental public health concern, and achieving a safe supply poses major challenges for organisations involved in the food chain. A vide number of food borne hazards, both familiar and new, pose risks to health and obstructions to international trade in foods. These hazards must be properly analysed, assessed and managed to meet growing and increasingly complex sets of global food chain. Proper implementation of food hygiene principles across the food chain in conjunction with Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System will ensure food safety. To achieve this, a procedure for hazard analysis and assessment based on ISO 22000:2005 methodology has been developed. The hazard assessment, selection and assessment of control measures, Operational prerequisite programme Plan and HACCP Plan have been summarized in comprehensive tables.

Foreign objects in food threaten food safety. For the food industry, incidents involving these objects can tarnish a company’s reputation, reduce sales, and may even lead to customer distrust towards the company. There have been no studies to correctly establish an operational prerequisite program (OPRP) and hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) plan in the premixed powder and liquid sauces of the small and medium-sized food enterprises (SMFEs) industry according to the ISO 22000: 2018 standard. Our research aims to propose an ISO 22000: 2018 method for risk assessment and control of hazard assessments, and to establish and implement HACCP and traceability systems. In this study, the solid premixed powder (Italian panna cotta powder) and liquid sauce (white sauce) products were taken as an example. The food safety standard management system (FSMS) ISO 22000: 2018 was introduced to investigate the influence of the metal detector on the process. The proposed methodology combines risk analysis to identify physical significant hazards and then combines decision trees to determine hazard analysis control points (CCPs). It can be found from the research that the metal detector is extremely important and effective for the control damage of the solid premix powder, and the metal detector has a supplementary effect on the liquid sauce because of its complicated composition. These significant hazards can be managed through the HACCP program and OPRP. After the implementation of the ISO 22000: 2018 standard, the number of abnormal processes has been significantly reduced, and the number of complaints has been significantly reduced.

A novel method was developed to estimate the fault probability of basic events in fault tree analysis (FTA) for microbial contamination. A simple food preparation process was used for the analysis. The process consisted of mixing and cutting. The fault probability (PF) was for the occasion at excess level of E. coli compared to a threshold level. The basic events were identified as faults in sanitary handling of the hands, mixing bowl, knife, and cutting board. The top event was the ultimate fault, i.e. contamination of a model food (cotton cloth). PF of the basic events was estimated, using normal distribution functions established on the basis of contamination levels, which were determined by microbiological analysis. The area under the normal distribution function to the right of a threshold level, which was the contamination level required to cause a hazard, was regarded as PF. Finally, the PF of the top event could be estimated from PF of the basic events by FTA quantitative analysis. The estimated PF of the model food proved to agree with that measured experimentally.

The EFSA BIOHAZ panel published a scientific opinion proposing a new approach in food safety management, adapted to the needs of small retail businesses such as grocery, butcher, bakery, fishmonger and ice cream shops. The opinion is aiming at a more hands-on development and maintenance of their food safety management system, based on prerequisite programs and hazard analysis critical control point-principles. In this paper, the added value of the EFSA opinion is evaluated by comparing requirements with existing legislation and applied guidelines relevant for butchers, and to assess perceptions about introduced changes by this opinion for small independent butcheries in Flanders, Belgium and in North-West England, UK as a case study. Results show that the conditions for flexibilities, as stated in the EFSA opinion, could lead to difficulties in interpretation among Member States. Also, the hazard analysis approach applied in the two main UK guides to good practice appeared to be similar to the simplified approach proposed by EFSA. For Belgium, the main difference is that in the Belgian guide to good practice hazards are ranked and critical control points are identified for the preparation and selling of fresh meat, minced meat and meat preparations. The specification of prerequisite programs and related activities in the EFSA opinion can be an important step towards harmonization among EU Member States. Assessing the perceptions of ten UK and ten Belgian butchers revealed that the hazard analysis approach and the thirteen prerequisite requirements proposed by EFSA, are generally positively experienced by the butchers. However, the introduction of the proposal ‘Monthly microbiological tests’ to verify cleaning and disinfection activities is rejected by all the Belgian butchers and by the majority of the UK butchers. This proposal will not ease their job and the necessity of these tests should be reconsidered.

A study concerning HACCP implementation was conducted in 86 German and 66 Polish food enterprises. The questions asked in this study addressed HACCP implementation according to the 12 steps defined by Codex Alimentarius Commission. Some deficiencies were identified. As the results show, the specification of biological hazards is frequently not sufficient to provide suitable guidance mechanisms, and to monitor the limits, and therefore, they are not in compliance with Codex Alimentarius and Regulation (EC) No 852/2004. Furthermore, a lack of consistence in defining terms (e.g. CP) leads to their diverging application in practice. Overall, the HACCP implementation in Poland was found to comply somewhat better with the Codex Alimentarius principles and Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 than in Germany.

The UK Food Standards Agency is currently funding research to build the evidence base for the modernisation of meat inspection. This includes an assessment of the risks to public health and animal health/welfare of moving to a visual-only post-mortem meat inspection (PMMI), where routine mandatory palpation and incision procedures are omitted. In this paper we present the results of a risk assessment for a change from current to visual-only PMMI for cattle, sheep/goats and farmed/wild deer. A large list of hazard/species pairings were assessed and prioritised by a process of hazard identification. Twelve hazard/species pairings were selected for full consideration within the final risk assessment. The results of the public health risk assessment indicated that all hazard/species pairings were Negligible with the exception of Cysticercus bovis in cattle, which was judged to be of low-medium increased risk for systems not conforming to criteria as laid down by EC Regulation 1244/2007, compared to systems that do conform to Regulations for visual-only PMMI. Most hazard/species pairings were concluded to pose a potential increased risk to animal health/welfare, including Mycobacterium bovis (very low – low increase in risk, but with considerable uncertainty), Fasciola hepatica (negligible – very low) and Cysticercus bovis (very low – low). Due to low feedback rates to farmers, the real risk to animal health/welfare for F. hepatica and C. bovis, including animals in non-conforming systems under visual-only PMMI, is probably negligible. That then leaves M. bovis as the only confirmed non-negligible animal health and welfare risk.

The specificity of small organizations (i.e. limited human, financial and technical resources) within the food sector results in problems with adopting the Codex HACCP model used in medium and large-sized businesses. In Poland, it is additionally hindered by the use of a model system mostly based on rigid adherence to quality management protocols based on the ISO 9001 standard. This paper presents how some of the Polish small and/or less-developed food businesses have implemented some elements of the HACCP system. Several practical solutions focusing on the simplification of some system areas such as flow diagrams, hazard analysis, documented procedures and records are described. Moreover, the possibility of applying the GMP/GHP Manual instead of the typical procedures/instructions is presented.

HACCP is a key element of modern food safety management practice such that design, implementation, control and management of HACCP systems are crucial to the production of safe food products. Whilst it is widely accepted that food companies should apply HACCP, understanding of the factors impacting successful HACCP application is limited and this knowledge is important to the delivery of systems that will control all relevant food safety hazards. HACCP principle 1, Conduct a Hazard Analysis, forms a central pillar of any HACCP plan since hazards need to be identified, analysed and understood before effective control measures can be specified. However limited guidance is available to HACCP teams on exactly how to approach the application of this principle. This paper discusses an investigation into the application of HACCP principle 1 by HACCP teams operating within manufacturing sites of a multinational food company. Using a combination of HACCP knowledge testing and HACCP plan assessment, the study identified weaknesses in knowledge of significant hazard identification and errors in the hazard analysis process, including errors in application of structured risk evaluation methods. Findings suggest that this is an area of difficulty for HACCP teams and that further detailed guidance in the application of this HACCP principle is urgently needed.

The HACCP/food safety plan is a basic document of every structured food safety management system (FSMS). The aim of the study was to identify and to discuss the most important problems related to the HACCP/food safety plans in 47 small food businesses (SFBs) with standardized FSMSs. Using an affinity diagram, ABCD (Suzuki) method, structured desktop and on-site assessments, the relativization method and Pareto analysis, numerous difficulties and weaknesses were identified, ranked and discussed. This paper presents a unique set of opinions from HACCP/food safety team leaders (HTLs) on the difficulties in the process of developing the HACCP/food safety plans and the weaknesses identified during the on-site assessment of HACCP documentation. Ranking the difficulties by the application of the ABCD (Suzuki) method revealed that in the opinion of HTLs, OPRPs and structured hazard assessment tools, especially in the assessment of the hazard severity, were the most problematic areas in developing HACCP/food safety plans. The Pareto analysis showed that the highest cumulative percentages (almost 60%) of non-compliances occurred in areas of documentation, hazard identification and hazard assessment, process flow diagrams and verification of the system. These findings provide added value to knowledge of the implementation and maintenance of HACCP principles, considerably expanding their range, particularly in regard to SFBs. This will make the results of this study useful for HACCP/food safety teams, official food control inspectors and external experts in strengthening the maintenance of HACCP plans/systems in food businesses with different FSMS models.

The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a Food Safety Management System (FSMS) that is recognized in the international food safety community as a world wide guideline for controlling food borne safety hazards. Nevertheless, the availability of a diagnostic instrument to assess the performance and effectiveness of the FSMS is rather restricted; therefore, the food sector needs an instrument to measure the effectiveness of FSMS. Based on the HACCP objectives identified in the literature, in this research, HACCP effectiveness is defined as the degree of achieving its objectives. A measurement instrument is developed and then empirically validated through collecting preliminary data from 335 Greek food enterprises. After testing the assumptions of multivariate analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis as well as first and second order Confirmatory Factor Analysis are applied. This study reveals the three-dimensional nature of the HACCP objectives (hazard identification, hazard assessment and hazard control). Further analysis of the data also reveals a valid latent factor reflecting the successful achievement of the HACCP objectives, namely “HACCP effectiveness”. This measurement instrument can be used by a food company as a self assessment tool and a benchmarking tool. In doing so, suitable strategies can be selected in order for a food company to allocate resources, increase HACCP effectiveness and improve its product safety.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP), internationally recognized as an effective way of controlling foodborne hazards, has been progressively applied for the benefit of the food industry. However, HACCP is a difficult principle to apply. Failure to perform hazard analysis could render the entire HACCP plan ineffective. This paper describes a new analytical method using simple beta and triangular probability distributions to improve the hazard analysis stage of the HACCP plan. Developed in Microsoft® Excel (a spreadsheet program), the model calculates the risk level for the probability, i.e., the likelihood of occurrence of a specific hazard by using background information and data. A pork-cutting procedure was included in a case study. At a 50% percentile value in probability distribution, the highest risk was a biological hazard (e.g., foodborne pathogens growth) in the packaging steps, at a probability of 5.5 × 10−1. The lowest risk was a physical hazard in the packaging steps (e.g., foreign materials introduced by packaging damage), at a probability of 1.4 × 10−3. Despite certain shortcomings, this model, with further improvements, could be expected to increase the effectiveness of HACCP in controlling food safety.

We show that the HACCP system is not fully applicable at the primary production level, and that food safety is obtained through the careful implementation of good hygiene practice (GHP) at the farm. Guides to GHP intended at primary productions cover one activity, such as cattle rearing or corn production. Yet most farms have more than one activity. Hazards from one activity can be transferred to another activity, and in general this is not considered in one-activity guides. There is a need therefore for farmers to be able to detect and control such transfers. We suggest a horizontal complement to the Guides to GHP that would consider only the application of the Step 6 and Principle 1 of the HACCP system amended as follows: “List all potential hazards transferred from one activity to another activity within the farm , conduct a hazard analysis, and consider any measures to control identified hazards”. An outline in two parts is proposed. The first part would help at checking if all generic GHP are in place; the second part would help at disclosing interactions between farm specific activities. Detected hazard transfers could then be controlled with measures that are already described in existing guides. The horizontal complement would benefit from being drafted at the European Community level.

The standard Codex HACCP approach was modified to allow a hazard analysis and critical control point determination to be conducted at an industry level and then used to determine the appropriate on-farm food safety control measures for pig production in Australia. A detailed risk-based profile with hazard identification, hazard characterisation and levels of microbial contamination for production and primary processing was used as a major technical resource to inform HACCP determinations. The process resulted in the identification of Critical Control Points for control of a specific physical hazard (non-recovered broken needles) and prevention of violations of Maximum Residue Limits with agricultural and veterinary chemicals. In relation to the identified microbiological hazards, it was noted that there are numerous Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to prevent and/or reduce their risk and these controls would also need to be a feature of any on-farm food safety program. By applying a HACCP-based approach it was determined that the application of a set of Good Agricultural Practices on-farm would be effective in ensuring low risk. It was, therefore, concluded that on-farm food safety programs may not warrant full (i.e. Codex compliant) HACCP plans at the individual enterprise level provided appropriate GAP is in place. The results provide pig producers and the Australian pig industry with the elements of a HACCP-based food safety system that are scientifically justifiable, understandable and realistic to apply. These features are essential elements that underpin successful implementation and compliance by industry.

Food borne illness continues to be a major global concern, with approximately 76 million cases in the US and 70,000 in the UK annually. The adoption of a food safety management system based upon Codex HACCP principles became a legal requirement in the UK on January 1st 2006 but some companies are inexperienced and fail to implement it correctly. Barriers to HACCP include time, money and expertise, particularly for SMEs and microbusinesses. Lack of expertise is a particular problem when constructing the hazard analysis component of HACCP. A sector specific information resource, using simple language with no technical terms or jargon, was developed to assist SMEs with hazard analysis. One hundred and twenty three SME food manufacturers were recruited and intervention and control groups were assigned, with the intervention group receiving the resource. Evaluation visits were performed after four months. Each company was assessed against a specific tool that determined knowledge, behavior and attitude to food safety. The resource was well received but there was no significant improvement in knowledge, behavior or attitude when comparing the intervention and control group scores. Significant differences in the behavior of SMEs and microbusinesses were evident with SMEs scoring higher in all sections of the resource than the microbusinesses. SMEs also had a significantly higher total knowledge score than microbusinesses but there were no significant differences in attitudes. It is apparent action must be taken to assist SMEs with hazard analysis and full HACCP implementation, but provision of a single resource without additional support is not enough.

This paper sets out a bacterial hazard analysis methodology, based on the ISO 22000 standard, which could be adopted by small food manufacturers. The paper provides a practical example: meat pâte prepared by pork butchers. The results of the hazard analysis showed that many bacterial hazards, particularly Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus could be effectively controlled by good hygiene practices. For three microbial hazards – Bacillus cereus , Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens – specific control measures must be implemented. Hazard analysis provided the necessary basis for a rational choice of these specific control measures.

Our study aims to establish an HACCP system which was implemented for the quality assurance of vacuum-packed sauced pork processing in Chinese food corporations. After identified hazards, the critical control points were defined using a decision tree. In addition, the vacuum-packed sauced pork products, manufactured by three corporations, were detected for chemical and microbial contaminants before and after the implementation of the HACCP system, respectively. According to the national food hygiene standards accepted by PR China, for nitrite, aerobic plate count and coliforms, the percentage of products obtained before vs. after the implementation of HACCP satisfying the standards was 86.2% vs. 100%, 71.3% vs. 96.4% and 71.3% vs. 95.5%, respectively. In conclusion, the contaminants of vacuum-packed sauced pork can be reduced or eliminated if an HACCP system is applied effectively.

FTA (fault tree analysis) of the handwashing process was performed to investigate the causes for faults in hygiene management. The causes were deductively identified as the events causing every possible hazard by constructing a fault tree. The fault tree was constructed in a hierarchical structure with a single top event (occurrence of faults in hand washing), seven intermediate events, and fifteen basic events connected by a Boolean operator AND gate, or an OR gate. Qualitative analysis on the fault tree yielded minimal cut sets, structural importance, and common cause vulnerability. Quantitative analysis yielded simulation of the final top event fault, cut set importance, item importance, and sensitivity. Those factors are basically a measure to represent the priority order of the basic events causing the top event. The critical basic events turned out to be human errors in hand manipulation in terms of scrubbing the palms, backs, fingers, and fingertips of the hands, as well as failure to use hygienic towels for hand drying due to not using disposable paper towels and unhygienic storage of the towels. The priority order of the basic events was consistent between the qualitative and quantitative analyses. Consequently, we found that FTA, with qualitative and quantitative analyses, was a good alternative approach to hazard analysis in HACCP system implementation.

Regulation No. 852/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004, on the hygiene of foodstuffs, is compulsory in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States since 1 January 2006. Articles 12 and 13 state food business operators should establish and operate food safety programmes and procedures based the hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) principles as the HACCP system is an instrument to help food business operators attain a higher standard of food safety. In addition, article 15 establishes the HACCP requirements should take account of the seven principles contained in the Codex Alimentarius. Production of safe food based on the implementation of the principles of the HACCP ultimately relies on the effectiveness of the control and monitoring systems implemented at each of its critical control points (CCP). Thus, it is worthy to have a method available to estimate the CCP effectiveness as it could be used to provide quantitative measure of the suitability of the HACCP plan. This paper presents a method to assess the effectiveness of the critical control point based on the consideration of the performance of the couple control-monitoring system. An application example is also provided showing how the new approach performs in assessing CCP effectiveness by appropriately assessing and differentiating the influence of the capability and reliability of the control-monitoring system.

The standard Codex HACCP approach was modified to allow a hazard analysis to be conducted at an industry level which could then be used to derive appropriate on-farm food safety control measures for cattle, sheep and goat production in Australia. Scientific information from a through chain risk profile of the red meat industry was used as a major resource for the hazard analysis. The process resulted in the identification of critical control points for control of bovine spongioform encephalopathy (BSE), prevention of violations of maximum residue limits with agricultural and veterinary chemicals and infection with Cysticercus bovis (Beef Measles). By applying this HACCP-based approach it was determined that the application of a simple set of good agricultural practices (GAP) on-farm would be effective in ensuring low risk. It was, therefore, concluded that on-farm food safety schemes may not warrant full HACCP plans at the individual enterprise level as long as appropriate GAP is in place. The results provide red meat producers with the elements of a HACCP-based food safety scheme that is scientifically justifiable, understandable and realistic to apply which are essential elements that underpin successful implementation and compliance by industry. Subsequently, an on-farm food safety program has been developed to provide an appropriate level of protection for consumers as well as to protect Australia’s trade from food safety-related issues.

The survey was carried out in 16 provinces of Poland. Its objective was to collect information on the actual situation in the area of implementing Good Manufacture Practice (GMP), Good Hygiene Practice (GHP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) in food production and processing plants. The survey demonstrated that 91% of the surveyed plants are familiar with GHP rules and 95% with HACCP. 34% of the plants have already implemented the system, 35% are in the process of implementing it, 28% are thinking of its adoption and 3% do not intend to implement the system as long as possible. The advancement of the surveyed plants in GMP, GHP and HACCP implementation can be regarded as satisfactory.

This study illustrates the application of validation principles to evaluate the scientific and technical content of the critical control point (CCP) in a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) system. A commercial shell egg washing step was selected as a demonstrated process. Validation procedures involved in compliance of the obtained commercially operated data with the related literature and applying the appropriate statistical process control (SPC) tools. The results showed that the critical limits of all control measures defined for this CCP in the observed plant, pH of wash water (11–13), temperature of wash water (32–44 °C), temperature of rinse water (41–49 °C) and chlorine level (100–200 ppm) are in accordance with those generally recommended by many related literature to ensure safe food production. Recommendations suggested by related literature were that pH of wash water should be 10–11, however, >11 was tolerable, temperature of wash water should be at least 12 °C higher than eggs and not in excess of 50 °C, temperature of rinse water should be slightly higher (3–4 °C) than wash water temperature and chlorine (sanitiser) level should be between 100 and 200 ppm. Hence, this CCP was judged to be valid. The evaluation by applying the trial control charts to all collected data over the period showed that the process was not in control in all control measures (presence of tests of assignable causes). The process variability (control limit) was assumed as a “current actual performance” and compared with the recommendations. Most control measures are satisfactory in terms of safe food productions. Some special considerations were made on particular control measures such as wash water temperature and chlorine level. The process capability studies were conducted for treated data and the results showed that all control measures are capable to the designed critical limits except chlorine level whose process spread (6 sigmas) falls outside the width of critical limits.

Current legislation requires food businesses to identify and control food hazards by focussing on critical factors which directly affect the safety of food. This study, commissioned by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) compares the standards of food hygiene in seventy food premises operating either documented or undocumented hazard analysis systems within the Derby City Council boundary. Food hygiene standards were evaluated from purchase of foodstuffs to service of meals to customers. Scores were awarded for the implementation of controls integral to hazard analysis, based on epidemiological data. The only stages in production where a significant difference in standards existed was during preparation and cooking. That is, the standards of hygiene were better during preparation and cooking in those premises with documented hazard analysis systems compared to those operating undocumented systems. The findings highlight problems associated with ineffective monitoring of temperatures, particularly at cooking and cross contamination resulting from poor cleaning practices. The study has important implications for future development of hygiene legislation, particularly if Government is committed to require 30% of UK food businesses to implement full HACCP by April 2004.

During the hazard analysis as part of the development of a HACCP-system, first the hazards (contaminants) have to be identified and then the risks have to be assessed. Often, this assessment is restricted to a qualitative analysis. By using elements of quantitative risk assessment (QRA) the hazard analysis can be transformed into a more meaningful managerial tool. In this way the effect of control measures can be quantified, so the occurrence of contaminants in the endproducts can be estimated. Also, the quantitative risk assessment is a tool to derive or validate control measures and critical limits at process steps (CCPs). The practical use of quantitative risk assessment is demonstrated by two examples: the risk of raw fermented sausages and the risk of a pressurized meat product. It can be concluded that quantitative risk assessment is a powerful combination of food microbiology, modelling and applied statistics. It is recommended as the input for managing food safety issues as an extension or validation of the HACCP-system. © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Hazard identification is a common step in the hazard analysis and risk-assessment processes. The fact that this step is shared between the two processes is creating some confusion about how they can be used in our food safety programs. Hazard analysis and risk assessment are fundamentally different and independent processes. Hazard analysis is a qualitative, local process conducted by a food plant's HACCP team. This process usually requires several weeks or months to complete. In contrast, risk assessment is a quantitative, global process in which a numerical degree of risk can be calculated for a particular hazard. It is usually conducted by a large consortium that includes regulatory, public health, academic, and industry participation. It is a longer process, typically requiring several months or years for completion. In hazard analysis, one major method for the identification of hazards consists of a review of the sensitive ingredients used in food production. Many food companies maintain sensitive ingredient lists for hazards such as Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, aflatoxin, allergens, etc. Another major method for the identification of hazards consists of an open-ended brainstorming process by the HACCP team, which in 1992 replaced the brief, formal hazard analysis process that was first used about 30 years ago. The limited number of questions considered in the formal process proved to be insufficient to address the needs of the food industry, which is continually dealing with new hazards, new products, new processes, new markets, and new regulations. HACCP systems are designed to control identifiable hazards. Additional hazards that may need to be included in HACCP plans include previously unknown hazards that are identified by epidemiological efforts, and “regulatory hazards” that are mandated in new food regulations.

The seafood HACCP system is integrated into the official regulations of different countries. These regulations are based on the seven principles of HACCP, but they present important differences in scope and format of the prerequisite programs, technical recommendations and content of the HACCP plan. This paper analyses the official HACCP regulations that affect the seafood industry in Mexico, USA and the European Union and highlights such differences and their consequences on hazard analysis and HACCP implementation. The main differences found refer to the content and scope of the plan and the way, in which, prerequisite programs are to be implemented, documented and verified.

The application of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system is rapidly progressing, in particular in large and medium scale food industries. The term is becoming well known in food control and public health circles and is one which evokes food safety. However, concomitant with the headway of the HACCP system in food safety management, the incidence of foodborne diseases is increasing worldwide. Does the increase in foodborne diseases represent a paradox or failure of the HACCP system? The HACCP system is not a panacea for all food safety problems. It is a tool that guides food safety assurance personnel in the identification of pertinent hazards and control measures, ensuring that those which are critical for food safety are applied correctly. In this way, it enhances the safety of the food supply. While the application of the HACCP system can improve food safety in all situations, its strength and success in preventing foodborne illnesses depend on it being applied correctly and in combination with other food safety management systems, including the provision of a sanitary infrastructure and the application of principles of good hygienic practice. The paper presents the reasons for the increase in foodborne diseases, the role that the HACCP system plays in preventing foodborne diseases, the determinants of its success and failure, and the contribution which can reasonably be expected from the implementation of the HACCP system to public health.

Nowadays Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) has become a prerequisite for transactions involving food products. In view of the great variety of the latter a thorough HACCP analysis is required which should however be adapted to the specific needs and peculiarities of each product. Feta cheese and Manouri are two traditional Greek dairy products which have crossed the borders of other EU state members. Therefore, a thorough HACCP analysis of these two products has become an important issue for public health both at the national (Greek) and international (EU, USA, Australia, etc) level. This paper focuses on the flow diagrams based on the production lines of a dairy company in Northern Greece (Basdras, Katerini), and presents an analysis of the hazards and of the critical control points (CCP).

As the term “HACCP” (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) became known throughout the world in the late 1980’s, very different views concerning the interpretation and the practical implementation of the concept developed concurrently. One could get the impression that “HACCP” is very often used as a synonym for all hygiene and food safety measures, respectively. As a consequent implementation of all seven principles during production, processing and preparation of foods is not always possible, it is quite frequent that measures and parameters are defined as control and monitoring measures with their respective critical limits which are no longer in agreement with the original meaning of HACCP notions of Codex Alimentarius. Unfortunately, quite often in practice the consequent application of the seven principles is watered down, leading to a decline in the effectiveness of food safety concepts. It is not uncommon that the logical implementation of basic hygiene measures is declared as an “HACCP concept” and that a product-and production-specific hazard analysis is not performed previously. Examples are given. The introduction of the term “HACCP” into the European legislation has created additional problems, because the principles which are mentioned there differ considerably in number and, particularly, in content from the seven principles of Codex Alimentarius. A way out of the presently somewhat confusing situation is suggested by using the “Zurich House of Food-Safety” as a model.

This paper illustrates a practical example of how quantitative aspects can be incorporated in the hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system. Using a commercial hot-fill production line as a case the likely microbial load in the end-product is quantified on the basis of the recipe of the product, microbiological specifications of ingredients, time/temperature profile of process and thermotolerance of hazards. It is also demonstrated how such estimates provide a link to the third step in HACCP, the specification of criteria for the critical control points. The results are validated in a storage test.

A survey of the food industry in the Yorkshire and Humberside region regarding the implementation of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system is presented. The objectives were: to establish the level of implementation of HACCP systems, to obtain information of industry’s hazard awareness and to establish the barriers to HACCP implementation. 127 (72.6%) out of food companies had HACCP implemented, 26 (15%) were still in the process of implementation and 22 (12.6%) did not use HACCP. The results suggested that hazard identification is far from complete which in turn may lead to misjudgement of risks and preventative measures to control significant hazards. Identified parameters which may affect HACCP implementation included the lack of knowledge and expertise and adequate resources which are typified by the size of the company, customer requirements and the type of product.

In 1995, the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (Committee) was asked to investigate and characterize the association between cases for foodborne illness and fresh produce. The Committee was asked to provide recommendations that could be employed to reduce the risk of foodborne outbreaks associated with these commodities. In furtherance of this assignment, the Committee reviewed current epidemiologic data, the microbial ecology of the outbreak-associated organisms, and considered the current industry practices used for growing, harvesting, packing and distribution. An evaluation of these data provided a basis for hazard identification and the development of related control measures. The Committee has developed seven specific recommendations: Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) should be developed that will provide guidance on those agricultural and processing steps that can reduce pathogen levels on fresh produce. While Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Programs (HACCP) would be likely to provide the greatest assurance of the safety of these products, there are presently insufficient data upon which to develop such progams. Proactive and practical education programs are needed at all steps in the process, i.e., from the field to the consumer's plate. Additional data are needed to conduct effective risk assessments of the microbial hazards associated with fresh produce. Better product identification and tracing systems are needed for outbreak investigations. Research must be conducted to fill some of the current knowledge gaps in order that improved intervention strategies can be employed. Steps should be taken to ‘streamline’ approval processes for new technologies that will reduce/eliminate microbial hazards.

Application of HACCP is now firmly established worldwide as the foremost means of assuring food safety throughout the food chain. However, the genuine application of HACCP principles can be difficult in the design of HACCP plans for raw food commodities. This is especially the case with fresh meat and fresh meat products. In attempting to address these problems, the NZ MAF Regulatory Authority has developed a generic template for design of HACCP plans for slaughter and dressing of domestic livestock, and application of the template using sheep as an example is presented in this paper. Establishment of food safety objectives for the particular segment of the food chain under consideration is important, and the hazard analysis step should individually consider the different components of the raw material (hide, head/offals/carcass, gastrointestinal tract) and their potential for microbiological contamination of the final product. Other tools which facilitate design and application of the HACCP system are special consideration of prerequisite programmes, use of job descriptions for slaughtermen, and a customized decision tree for identification of critical control points. Design and verification of the HACCP plan is enhanced by reference to microbiological ‘targets’ established according to a standardized national microbiological database aggregated from all licensed premises. In the absence of a human health microbiological risk assessment model for particular pathogens that may be present in meat and meat products, the food safety objectives of the HACCP plan will probably be associated with control of hazards rather than control of risks.

The current Codex document ‘Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System and Guidelines for its Application’ is a reflection of the excellent work by the food industry and the international scientific community in developing, over a period of many years, a tool that is known to increase our control over foodborne safety hazards. Despite the development of HACCP into an internationally accepted protocol, there are calls for further refinements and improvements in food safety control systems. Amongst those topics under discussion currently is the application of risk analysis to food safety, and specifically the application of elements of risk analysis to HACCP. Although the initial HACCP concept in the early 1970s did contain the concept of risk categorisation this was primarily a qualitative ranking system and the majority of judgements made in the preparation of HACCP plans today are based primarily on qualitative, not quantitative data. The use of elements of risk analysis (assessment) in HACCP is proposed by a number of authors to enable decisions to be taken on a more quantitative basis, particularly during the hazard analysis (Codex Alimentarius Principle 1) and identification of Critical Limits (Codex Alimentarius Principle 3), stages. This paper considers the potential benefits and burdens to the industry arising from the application of elements of quantitative risk assessment in HACCP.

The goal of absolute food safety is impossible to achieve, for there is virtually no component of our food supply that is without risk to some part of the population. However, the majority of illnesses caused by food can be controlled and enforcement officers have a role to play in this. The aim of this paper is, therefore, to consider the challenges that are presented to British Enviromental Health Officers (EHOs) in their goal of assisting food businesses to achieve safe food. Whilst countries have differing systems of food safety enforcement, many of the challenges presented in this paper are similar. The main conclusions are that whilst trends in foodborne illness continue to rise, it is imperative that food safety enforcement is altered to incorporate hazard analysis. Enforcement officers need to communicate effectively with food businesses, in particular small and medium sized outlets (SMEs), who are reliant on their advice.

The introduction of quantitative risk analysis into food safety assurance systems has been suggested. This paper presents an attempt to quantify the risk posed to consumers of ‘kenkey’, a traditional fermented staple food of Ghana. The risk analysis is conducted exclusively for adverse health effects caused by aflatoxins, contaminants frequently found in the raw materials used for kenkey production. It follows the concept of hazard identification, exposure assessment, dose-response assessment and risk characterisation. In the step risk management measures of aflatoxin reduction and the use of quantitative risk analysis for the specification of risk-based criteria in a HACCP system are discussed.