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Introduction: There is a paucity of clinical studies examining the long-term effects of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) on cognition, although a recent study of patients with drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) treated with VNS therapy demonstrated significant improvement in executive functions as measured by the EpiTrack composite score. The present study aimed to investigate performance variability in three cognitive tests assessing executive functions and working memory in a cohort of DRE patients receiving VNS therapy during a follow-up duration of up to 5 years. Methods: The study included 46 DRE patients who were assessed with the Trail Making Test (TMT) (Parts A and B) and Digit Span Backward (DB) task prior to VNS implantation, 6 months and 12 months after implantation, and yearly thereafter as a part of the clinical VNS protocol. A linear mixed-effects (LME) model was used to analyze changes in test z scores over time, accounting for variations in follow-up duration when predicting changes over 5 years. Additionally, we conducted descriptive analyses to illustrate individual changes. Results: On average, TMT-A z scores improved by 0.024 units (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.006 to 0.042, p = 0.009), TMT-B z scores by 0.034 units (95% CI: 0.012 to 0.057, p = 0.003), and DB z scores by 0.019 units per month (95% CI: 0.011 to 0.028, p < 0.001). Patients with psychiatric comorbidities achieved the greatest improvements in TMT-B and DB z scores among all groups (0.0058 units/month, p = 0.036 and 0.028 units/month, p = 0.003, respectively). TMT-A z scores improved the most in patients taking 1-2 ASMs as well as in patients with psychiatric comorbidities (0.042 units/month, p = 0.002 and p = 0.003, respectively). Conclusion: Performance in all three tests improved at the group level during the follow-up period, with the most robust improvement observed in TMT-B, which requires inhibition control and set-switching in addition to the visuoperceptual processing speed that is crucial in TMT-A and working-memory performance that is essential in DB. Moreover, the improvement in TMT-B was further enhanced if the patient had psychiatric comorbidities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In this study we assessed the contribution of psychopathology, including the two domains of negative symptoms (motivational deficit and expressive deficit), processing speed as an index of neurocognition, and emotion recognition, as an index of social cognition, to poor functional outcomes in people with schizophrenia. Methods: The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale was used to evaluate positive symptoms and disorganization and the Brief Negative Symptom Scale to assess negative symptoms. The Symbol Coding and the Trail Making Test A and B were used to rate processing speed and the Facial Emotion Identification Test to assess emotion recognition. Functional outcome was assessed with the Personal and Social Performance Scale (PSP). Regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of functional outcome. Mediation analyses was used to investigate whether social cognition and negative symptom domains fully or partially mediated the impact of processing speed on functional outcome. Results: One hundred and fifty subjects from 8 different European centers were recruited. Our data showed that the expressive deficit predicted global functioning and together with motivational deficit fully mediated the effects of neurocognition on it. Motivational deficit was a predictor of personal and social functioning and fully mediated neurocognitive impairment effects on the same outcome. Both motivational deficit and neurocognitive impairment predicted socially useful activities, and the emotion recognition domain of social cognition partially mediated the impact of neurocognitive deficits on this outcome. Conclusions: Our results indicate that pathways to functional outcomes are specific for different domains of real-life functioning and that negative symptoms and social cognition mediate the impact of neurocognitive deficits on different domains of functioning. Our results suggest that both negative symptoms and social cognition should be targeted by psychosocial interventions to enhance the functional impact of neurocognitive remediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionThere is a paucity of clinical studies examining the long-term effects of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) on cognition, although a recent study of patients with drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) treated with VNS therapy demonstrated significant improvement in executive functions as measured by the EpiTrack composite score. The present study aimed to investigate performance variability in three cognitive tests assessing executive functions and working memory in a cohort of DRE patients receiving VNS therapy during a follow-up duration of up to 5 years.MethodsThe study included 46 DRE patients who were assessed with the Trail Making Test (TMT) (Parts A and B) and Digit Span Backward (DB) task prior to VNS implantation, 6 months and 12 months after implantation, and yearly thereafter as a part of the clinical VNS protocol. A linear mixed-effects (LME) model was used to analyze changes in test z scores over time, accounting for variations in follow-up duration when predicting changes over 5 years. Additionally, we conducted descriptive analyses to illustrate individual changes.ResultsOn average, TMT-A z scores improved by 0.024 units (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.006 to 0.042, p = 0.009), TMT-B z scores by 0.034 units (95% CI: 0.012 to 0.057, p = 0.003), and DB z scores by 0.019 units per month (95% CI: 0.011 to 0.028, p

IntroductionIn this study we assessed the contribution of psychopathology, including the two domains of negative symptoms (motivational deficit and expressive deficit), processing speed as an index of neurocognition, and emotion recognition, as an index of social cognition, to poor functional outcomes in people with schizophrenia.MethodsThe Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale was used to evaluate positive symptoms and disorganization and the Brief Negative Symptom Scale to assess negative symptoms. The Symbol Coding and the Trail Making Test A and B were used to rate processing speed and the Facial Emotion Identification Test to assess emotion recognition. Functional outcome was assessed with the Personal and Social Performance Scale (PSP). Regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of functional outcome. Mediation analyses was used to investigate whether social cognition and negative symptom domains fully or partially mediated the impact of processing speed on functional outcome.ResultsOne hundred and fifty subjects from 8 different European centers were recruited. Our data showed that the expressive deficit predicted global functioning and together with motivational deficit fully mediated the effects of neurocognition on it. Motivational deficit was a predictor of personal and social functioning and fully mediated neurocognitive impairment effects on the same outcome. Both motivational deficit and neurocognitive impairment predicted socially useful activities, and the emotion recognition domain of social cognition partially mediated the impact of neurocognitive deficits on this outcome.ConclusionsOur results indicate that pathways to functional outcomes are specific for different domains of real-life functioning and that negative symptoms and social cognition mediate the impact of neurocognitive deficits on different domains of functioning. Our results suggest that both negative symptoms and social cognition should be targeted by psychosocial interventions to enhance the functional impact of neurocognitive remediation.

Previous studies evaluating the morphology of the selected retinal layers in schizophrenia showed abnormalities regarding macular thickness, retinal nerve fiber layer (RNLF), and ganglion cell complex (GCC). Concurrently, accumulating neuroimaging results suggest that structural alterations of the brain in this disease might be an effect of accelerated aging. Referring to these findings, we aimed to determine whether the thinning of the retinal layers assessed with the optic coherence tomography (OCT) in a group of schizophrenia patients (n = 60) presents a significant age-related decrease exceeding potential changes noted in the control group (n = 61). Samples of patients and controls were divided into three age subgroups, namely, younger, middle-aged, and older participants. OCT outcomes, such as macular thickness and volume, macular RNFL, peripapillary RNFL, andGCC, were analyzed concerning a diagnosis status (controls vs. patients) and age subgroups. Additionally, associations between retinal parameters, age, and selected cognitive functions were evaluated. post-hoc tests revealed that macular thickness and volume in patients undergo significant age-dependent thinning, which was not observed in the control group. Regression analyses confirmed the association between macular morphology and age. Selected speed-dependent cognitive functions in patients decreased significantly with age, and these features were also significantly associated with some OCT outcomes also after controlling for antipsychotic treatment. Our results suggest that reduced measures of retinal structure detected in schizophrenia may be an effect of accelerated aging; however, further research is needed using computational solutions derived from brain imaging studies based on large datasets covering representatives of all age groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies evaluating the morphology of the selected retinal layers in schizophrenia showed abnormalities regarding macular thickness, retinal nerve fiber layer (RNLF), and ganglion cell complex (GCC). Concurrently, accumulating neuroimaging results suggest that structural alterations of the brain in this disease might be an effect of accelerated aging. Referring to these findings, we aimed to determine whether the thinning of the retinal layers assessed with the optic coherence tomography (OCT) in a group of schizophrenia patients (n = 60) presents a significant age-related decrease exceeding potential changes noted in the control group (n = 61). Samples of patients and controls were divided into three age subgroups, namely, younger, middle-aged, and older participants. OCT outcomes, such as macular thickness and volume, macular RNFL, peripapillary RNFL, and GCC, were analyzed concerning a diagnosis status (controls vs. patients) and age subgroups. Additionally, associations between retinal parameters, age, and selected cognitive functions were evaluated. post-hoc tests revealed that macular thickness and volume in patients undergo significant age-dependent thinning, which was not observed in the control group. Regression analyses confirmed the association between macular morphology and age. Selected speed-dependent cognitive functions in patients decreased significantly with age, and these features were also significantly associated with some OCT outcomes also after controlling for antipsychotic treatment. Our results suggest that reduced measures of retinal structure detected in schizophrenia may be an effect of accelerated aging; however, further research is needed using computational solutions derived from brain imaging studies based on large datasets covering representatives of all age groups.

Aims: To examine the correlation between smoking status and different domains of cognitive function in elderly Americans. Methods: We used data from the 2011 to 2014U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Participants over 60 years with available smoking history and cognitive function data were enrolled in our analysis. The NHANES study included the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) assessment, the Animal Fluency Test (AFT), and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) to assess cognition. Multivariate regression analyses were used to estimate the association between cigarette smoking and cognitive function. Results: A total of 2,932 participants were enrolled in the analysis, including 372 (12.7%) current smokers, 1,115 (38%) former smokers, and 1,445 (49.3%) never smokers. Never smokers had in average 3.82 (95% CI, 2.21 to 5.43) points more than current smokers in the DSST, whereas former smokers had 3.12 (95% CI, 1.51 to 4.73) points more than current smokers. Besides, smoking was not associated with the results of the AFT or the CERAD test. Conclusions: This study suggests that cigarette smoking is associated with processing speed among the American elderly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Prior research has shown that ketamine has anti-suicide effects. Additional evidence also suggests that ketamine may offer pro-cognitive effects. Herein, we propose that the anti-suicide effects of ketamine are partially mediated via pro-cognitive effects. We aimed to determine whether improvement in cognitive function mediated change in suicidal ideation was associated with ketamine treatment. Methods: Unipolar or bipolar depressive patients (n = 86) with suicidal ideation received six infusions of ketamine (0.5 mg/kg) over 2 weeks. The current severity of suicidal ideation and depression symptoms were assessed with the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI) and the Montgomery–Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), respectively, at baseline, days 13 and 26. Cognitive domains, including processing speed, working memory, visual learning, and verbal learning were measured with the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS) Consensus Cognitive Battery at the same time points. Results: Mediation analysis showed a significant total effect of ketamine treatment on SSI score (coef = –1.853, 95%CI [–2.2, –1.5]). The direct and total indirect (MADRS total score and any of cognitive domains) effects of ketamine on suicidal ideation both were statistically significant (direct: coef = –1.064 to –1.352; total indirect: coef = –0.501 to –0.788). MADRS total score and processing speed (but not other cognitive domains) were significant partial mediators of the association between ketamine treatment and improvements in suicidal ideation. Conclusion: Depressive symptoms severity and processing speed performance partially mediated improvements in suicidal ideation after repeated ketamine infusions in persons with unipolar or bipolar depressive disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectivePrior research has shown that ketamine has anti-suicide effects. Additional evidence also suggests that ketamine may offer pro-cognitive effects. Herein, we propose that the anti-suicide effects of ketamine are partially mediated via pro-cognitive effects. We aimed to determine whether improvement in cognitive function mediated change in suicidal ideation was associated with ketamine treatment.MethodsUnipolar or bipolar depressive patients (n = 86) with suicidal ideation received six infusions of ketamine (0.5 mg/kg) over 2 weeks. The current severity of suicidal ideation and depression symptoms were assessed with the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI) and the Montgomery–Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), respectively, at baseline, days 13 and 26. Cognitive domains, including processing speed, working memory, visual learning, and verbal learning were measured with the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS) Consensus Cognitive Battery at the same time points.ResultsMediation analysis showed a significant total effect of ketamine treatment on SSI score (coef = –1.853, 95%CI [–2.2, –1.5]). The direct and total indirect (MADRS total score and any of cognitive domains) effects of ketamine on suicidal ideation both were statistically significant (direct: coef = –1.064 to –1.352; total indirect: coef = –0.501 to –0.788). MADRS total score and processing speed (but not other cognitive domains) were significant partial mediators of the association between ketamine treatment and improvements in suicidal ideation.ConclusionDepressive symptoms severity and processing speed performance partially mediated improvements in suicidal ideation after repeated ketamine infusions in persons with unipolar or bipolar depressive disorder.

Negative and cognitive symptoms are core features of schizophrenia that are correlated in cross-sectional designs. To further explore the relationship between these critical symptom dimensions we use a method for stratifying participants based on level and persistence of negative symptoms from absent to sustained levels over a 10-year follow-up period. We investigate associations with cognitive performance and level of global functioning. First-episode psychosis (FEP) participants (n = 102) and healthy controls (n = 116) were assessed at baseline and follow-up. A cognitive battery consisting of 14 tests derived into four domains and a composite score were used in the analyses. FEP participants were stratified based on negative symptom items from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS-R) into four groups with either no, mild, transitory or sustained symptoms over the 10-year follow-up period. Global functioning was measured with Global Assessment of Functioning Scale-Split version. Multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were used to explore between-group differences in level and course of cognitive performance as global functioning. A multivariate analysis with four cognitive domains as dependent variables, showed significant group differences in performance when including healthy controls and the negative symptom groups. The groups with no and mild negative symptoms outperformed the group with sustained levels of negative symptoms on verbal learning and memory. The group with no negative symptoms also outperformed the group with sustained negative symptoms on the cognitive composite score. Significant improvements on verbal learning and memory, executive functioning and the cognitive composite were detected for the entire sample. No differences in cognitive course were detected. There was a significant improvement in global functioning as measured by the GAF-F over the follow-up period (p < 0.001), without any time x group interactions (p = 0.25). Participants with sustained negative symptoms had a significantly lower level of global functioning at 10-year follow-up with an additional independent effect of the cognitive composite score, compared to all other groups. Individuals with an early illness course characterized by absence of negative symptoms form a group with better cognitive and functional outcomes than the impairments typically associated with schizophrenia. Individuals with sustained levels of negative symptoms on the other hand may require a combined focus on both negative and cognitive symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Negative and cognitive symptoms are core features of schizophrenia that are correlated in cross-sectional designs. To further explore the relationship between these critical symptom dimensions we use a method for stratifying participants based on level and persistence of negative symptoms from absent to sustained levels over a 10-year follow-up period. We investigate associations with cognitive performance and level of global functioning. First-episode psychosis (FEP) participants (n = 102) and healthy controls (n = 116) were assessed at baseline and follow-up. A cognitive battery consisting of 14 tests derived into four domains and a composite score were used in the analyses. FEP participants were stratified based on negative symptom items from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS-R) into four groups with either no, mild, transitory or sustained symptoms over the 10-year follow-up period. Global functioning was measured with Global Assessment of Functioning Scale-Split version. Multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were used to explore between-group differences in level and course of cognitive performance as global functioning. A multivariate analysis with four cognitive domains as dependent variables, showed significant group differences in performance when including healthy controls and the negative symptom groups. The groups with no and mild negative symptoms outperformed the group with sustained levels of negative symptoms on verbal learning and memory. The group with no negative symptoms also outperformed the group with sustained negative symptoms on the cognitive composite score. Significant improvements on verbal learning and memory, executive functioning and the cognitive composite were detected for the entire sample. No differences in cognitive course were detected. There was a significant improvement in global functioning as measured by the GAF-F over the follow-up period (p < 0.001), without any time x group interactions (p = 0.25). Participants with sustained negative symptoms had a significantly lower level of global functioning at 10-year follow-up with an additional independent effect of the cognitive composite score, compared to all other groups. Individuals with an early illness course characterized by absence of negative symptoms form a group with better cognitive and functional outcomes than the impairments typically associated with schizophrenia. Individuals with sustained levels of negative symptoms on the other hand may require a combined focus on both negative and cognitive symptoms.

Background: Eye movement parameters are often used during cognitive functioning assessments of patients with psychotic spectrum disorders. It is interesting to compare these oculomotor parameters with cognitive functions, as assessed using psychometric cognitive tests. A network analysis is preferable for understanding complex systems; therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the multidimensional relationships that exist between oculomotor reactions and neurocognition in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Materials and Methods: A total of 134 subjects (93 inpatients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (ICD-10) and 41 healthy volunteers) participated in this study. Psychiatric symptom severity was assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia, and the Young Mania Rating Scale. Extrapyramidal symptoms were assessed using the Simpson-Angus Scale, and akathisia was assessed using the Barnes Akathisia Rating Scale. Eye movements were recorded using an eye-tracker SMI RED 500, and cognitive function was assessed using the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia. The statistical analyses were conducted using Minitab 17 Statistical Software, version 17.2.1. Data visualization and additional analyses were performed in the R 4.0.3 environment, using RStudio V 1.3.1093 software. Results: A network model of neurocognitive and oculomotor functions was constructed for the patients. In the full network (which includes all correlations) the median antisaccade latency value is the central element of the oculomotor domain, and the Symbol Coding test, the Digit Sequencing test, and the Verbal Fluency test are central elements in the neurocognitive domain. Additionally, there were connections between other cognitive and oculomotor functions, except for the antisaccade error latency in the oculomotor domain and the Token Motor Task in the neurocognitive domain. Conclusion: Network analysis provides measurable criteria for the assessment of neurophysiological and neurocognitive abnormalities in patients with schizophrenic spectrum disorders and allows to select key targets for their management and cognitive remediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Suicide is moderately heritable and also more common in those who report childhood abuse. Previously, it was found that allele A of GABRG2 (GABA A receptor subunit gamma2) polymorphism rs211034 was protective in a suicide attempt (SA). Hence, it was proposed that rs211034 may interact with childhood trauma to influence cognitive deficits related to SA or depression risk. Genetic variants may predict the benefits of certain cognitive treatments. Methods: A total of 52 individuals who had attempted suicide, 59 individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar depression who had not previously attempted suicide, and 90 healthy volunteers were subjected to the modified Suicide Stroop task and were clinically assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and Hamilton Depression Scale-24 items (HAMD-24). rs211034 was genotyped using Sanger sequencing. Results: After correcting for covariates, depressed participants displayed longer reaction times for all emotional conditions, including suicide-related words, compared with healthy controls. Depressed suicide attempters displayed longer reaction times for negative words than depressed non-attempters. Depressed non-attempters displayed higher interference scores for negative words compared with healthy controls. There was an interaction between rs211034 risk allele and the effects of reported childhood sexual abuse (CSA) on reaction time for all emotional words and suicide-related words. Carriers of the rs211034 risk allele A exhibited shorter reaction times, but the protective effects of this allele were eliminated in those exposed to reported CSA. Conclusion: Only limited results were found regarding effects of a past suicide attempt on response times to emotional and suicide-related words, but there was an overall effect of major depression on slower response time. Protective genetic effects of the rs211034 A allele on this slowing were eliminated in those with a history of sexual abuse during childhood. Further research is needed to better characterize the mechanisms underlying the effects of childhood trauma on these genetic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Eye movement parameters are often used during cognitive functioning assessments of patients with psychotic spectrum disorders. It is interesting to compare these oculomotor parameters with cognitive functions, as assessed using psychometric cognitive tests. A network analysis is preferable for understanding complex systems; therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the multidimensional relationships that exist between oculomotor reactions and neurocognition in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders.Materials and Methods: A total of 134 subjects (93 inpatients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (ICD-10) and 41 healthy volunteers) participated in this study. Psychiatric symptom severity was assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia, and the Young Mania Rating Scale. Extrapyramidal symptoms were assessed using the Simpson-Angus Scale, and akathisia was assessed using the Barnes Akathisia Rating Scale. Eye movements were recorded using an eye-tracker SMI RED 500, and cognitive function was assessed using the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia. The statistical analyses were conducted using Minitab 17 Statistical Software, version 17.2.1. Data visualization and additional analyses were performed in the R 4.0.3 environment, using RStudio V 1.3.1093 software.Results: A network model of neurocognitive and oculomotor functions was constructed for the patients. In the full network (which includes all correlations) the median antisaccade latency value is the central element of the oculomotor domain, and the Symbol Coding test, the Digit Sequencing test, and the Verbal Fluency test are central elements in the neurocognitive domain. Additionally, there were connections between other cognitive and oculomotor functions, except for the antisaccade error latency in the oculomotor domain and the Token Motor Task in the neurocognitive domain.Conclusion: Network analysis provides measurable criteria for the assessment of neurophysiological and neurocognitive abnormalities in patients with schizophrenic spectrum disorders and allows to select key targets for their management and cognitive remediation.

Background: Suicide is moderately heritable and also more common in those who report childhood abuse. Previously, it was found that allele A of GABRG2 (GABA A receptor subunit gamma2) polymorphism rs211034 was protective in a suicide attempt (SA). Hence, it was proposed that rs211034 may interact with childhood trauma to influence cognitive deficits related to SA or depression risk. Genetic variants may predict the benefits of certain cognitive treatments.Methods: A total of 52 individuals who had attempted suicide, 59 individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar depression who had not previously attempted suicide, and 90 healthy volunteers were subjected to the modified Suicide Stroop task and were clinically assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and Hamilton Depression Scale-24 items (HAMD-24). rs211034 was genotyped using Sanger sequencing.Results: After correcting for covariates, depressed participants displayed longer reaction times for all emotional conditions, including suicide-related words, compared with healthy controls. Depressed suicide attempters displayed longer reaction times for negative words than depressed non-attempters. Depressed non-attempters displayed higher interference scores for negative words compared with healthy controls. There was an interaction between rs211034 risk allele and the effects of reported childhood sexual abuse (CSA) on reaction time for all emotional words and suicide-related words. Carriers of the rs211034 risk allele A exhibited shorter reaction times, but the protective effects of this allele were eliminated in those exposed to reported CSA.Conclusion: Only limited results were found regarding effects of a past suicide attempt on response times to emotional and suicide-related words, but there was an overall effect of major depression on slower response time. Protective genetic effects of the rs211034 A allele on this slowing were eliminated in those with a history of sexual abuse during childhood. Further research is needed to better characterize the mechanisms underlying the effects of childhood trauma on these genetic effects.

Major depression (MDD) is associated with cognitive deficits in processing speed and executive function (EF) following first episode (FE). It is unclear whether deficits are state or trait related. Studies following FE MDD over longer periods are lacking, making it uncertain how cognition and symptoms develop after the initial episode. The present study assessed cognitive function and symptoms 5 years following FE MDD. In addition, the study explored relationships between MDD symptoms, rumination, and cognitive deficits with regards to the trait, state, and scar perspective. Twenty-three participants with previous FE MDD, and 20 matched control participants were compared on Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System measures of processing speed and EF, in a 5-year longitudinal follow-up study. Correlations between current symptoms- and history of MDD, rumination, cognition were investigated. Findings indicated that cognitive deficits persisted with no clear signs of exacerbation after initial episode. Inhibition appeared independent of current and previous symptoms of depression. Processing speed was related to depressive- symptoms and rumination. In conclusion, results indicated persisting, stable deficits in both EFs and processing speed. Findings further suggest that depressive symptoms could be related to deficits in processing speed, indicating state effects. There was limited support for worsening of cognition after initial episode. Some aspects of EF like Inhibition could show persistent deficits independent of depressive symptoms indicating trait effects.

BackgroundAlthough schizophrenia patients have been reported to manifest deficits in cognitive flexibility and lower processing speed (measured with i.a., the Color Trails Test, CTT), there still remain a few matters that require further investigation. We have therefore formulated three research aims: 1) to examine the factor structure of CTT in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls, 2) to compare different CTT performance measures in the two groups, 3) to investigate the relationship between these measures and selected psychopathological symptoms in the patient group.MethodsSixty-seven patients with paranoid schizophrenia and 67 healthy controls, matched for gender, age, number of years of education, and overall cognitive functioning underwent assessment of cognitive flexibility and processing speed with the CTT.ResultsFactor analysis of CTT variables based on the principal component method revealed a four-factor solution in both groups. Compared with healthy controls, the patients performed poorer on CTT 1 time, CTT 2 time, 2-1 difference, prompts in CTT 2, and had higher regression factor scores for Factor 1 (reflecting the slower speed of perceptual tracking). Furthermore, significant links were found between some CTT measures, and negative and disorganization symptoms.ConclusionsSchizophrenia patients exhibit problems with speed of perceptual tracking and executive processes dependent on processing speed. Our results may be useful for the development of neuropsychological diagnostic methods for schizophrenia patients. It seems that, compared to other CTT indices, CTT 1 time, CTT 2 time, and 2-1 difference are more appropriate measures of cognitive performance in schizophrenia patients.

Major depression (MDD) is associated with cognitive deficits in processing speed and executive function (EF) following first episode (FE). It is unclear whether deficits are state or trait related. Studies following FE MDD over longer periods are lacking, making it uncertain how cognition and symptoms develop after the initial episode. The present study assessed cognitive function and symptoms 5 years following FE MDD. In addition, the study explored relationships between MDD symptoms, rumination, and cognitive deficits with regards to the trait, state, and scar perspective. Twenty-three participants with previous FE MDD, and 20 matched control participants were compared on Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System measures of processing speed and EF, in a 5-year longitudinal follow-up study. Correlations between current symptoms- and history of MDD, rumination, cognition were investigated. Findings indicated that cognitive deficits persisted with no clear signs of exacerbation after initial episode. Inhibition appeared independent of current and previous symptoms of depression. Processing speed was related to depressive- symptoms and rumination. In conclusion, results indicated persisting, stable deficits in both EFs and processing speed. Findings further suggest that depressive symptoms could be related to deficits in processing speed, indicating state effects. There was limited support for worsening of cognition after initial episode. Some aspects of EF like Inhibition could show persistent deficits independent of depressive symptoms indicating trait effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although schizophrenia patients have been reported to manifest deficits in cognitive flexibility and lower processing speed (measured with i.a., the Color Trails Test, CTT), there still remain a few matters that require further investigation. We have therefore formulated three research aims: 1) to examine the factor structure of CTT in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls, 2) to compare different CTT performance measures in the two groups, 3) to investigate the relationship between these measures and selected psychopathological symptoms in the patient group. Methods: Sixty-seven patients with paranoid schizophrenia and 67 healthy controls, matched for gender, age, number of years of education, and overall cognitive functioning underwent assessment of cognitive flexibility and processing speed with the CTT. Results: Factor analysis of CTT variables based on the principal component method revealed a four-factor solution in both groups. Compared with healthy controls, the patients performed poorer on CTT 1 time, CTT 2 time, 2-1 difference, prompts in CTT 2, and had higher regression factor scores for Factor 1 (reflecting the slower speed of perceptual tracking). Furthermore, significant links were found between some CTT measures, and negative and disorganization symptoms. Conclusions: Schizophrenia patients exhibit problems with speed of perceptual tracking and executive processes dependent on processing speed. Our results may be useful for the development of neuropsychological diagnostic methods for schizophrenia patients. It seems that, compared to other CTT indices, CTT 1 time, CTT 2 time, and 2-1 difference are more appropriate measures of cognitive performance in schizophrenia patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with a wide range of cognitive deficits. However, it remains unclear whether there will be a major cognitive deficit independently caused by depression at acute episodes of MDD.Method: A comprehensive neurocognitive test battery was used to assess the executive function, processing speed, attention, and memory in 162 MDD patients and 142 healthy controls (HCs). A multivariate analysis of variance, hierarchical regression analyses and general linear regression analyses were used to explore the possible major cognitive deficits and their predictor variables.Results: MDD patients showed extensive impairment in all four cognitive domains. Impairment of executive function and processing speed were found to persist even with other cognitive domains and clinical variables being accounted for. Executive function and processing speed were further predicted by total disease duration and depression severity, respectively.Conclusions: Executive function and processing speed may be two distinct major deficits at acute episodes of MDD. Furthermore, the executive function is likely originated from the cumulative effect of disease duration and processing speed is possibly derived from the temporary effect of current depressive episode.

It is suggested that the brain’s peak width of skeletonized water mean diffusivity (PSMD) is a neuro-biomarker of processing speed, an important aspect of cognitive aging. We tested whether PSMD is more strongly correlated with processing speed than with other cognitive domains, and more strongly than other structural brain MRI indices. Participants were 731 Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 members, mean age = 73 years (SD = 0.7); analytical sample was 656–680. Cognitive domains tested were as follows: processing speed (5 tests), visuospatial (3), memory (3), and verbal (3). Brain-imaging variables included PSMD, white matter diffusion parameters, hyperintensity volumes, gray and white matter volumes, and perivascular spaces. PSMD was significantly associated with processing speed (−0.27), visuospatial ability (−0.23), memory ability (−0.17), and general cognitive ability (−0.25); comparable correlations were found with other brain-imaging measures. In a multivariable model with the other imaging variables, PSMD provided independent prediction of visuospatial ability and general cognitive ability. This incremental prediction, coupled with its ease to compute and possibly better tractability, might make PSMD a useful brain biomarker in studies of cognitive aging.

Background: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with a wide range of cognitive deficits. However, it remains unclear whether there will be a major cognitive deficit independently caused by depression at acute episodes of MDD. Method: A comprehensive neurocognitive test battery was used to assess the executive function, processing speed, attention, and memory in 162 MDD patients and 142 healthy controls (HCs). A multivariate analysis of variance, hierarchical regression analyses and general linear regression analyses were used to explore the possible major cognitive deficits and their predictor variables. Results: MDD patients showed extensive impairment in all four cognitive domains. Impairment of executive function and processing speed were found to persist even with other cognitive domains and clinical variables being accounted for. Executive function and processing speed were further predicted by total disease duration and depression severity, respectively. Conclusions: Executive function and processing speed may be two distinct major deficits at acute episodes of MDD. Furthermore, the executive function is likely originated from the cumulative effect of disease duration and processing speed is possibly derived from the temporary effect of current depressive episode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is suggested that the brain's peak width of skeletonized water mean diffusivity (PSMD) is a neuro-biomarker of processing speed, an important aspect of cognitive aging. We tested whether PSMD is more strongly correlated with processing speed than with other cognitive domains, and more strongly than other structural brain MRI indices. Participants were 731 Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 members, mean age = 73 years (SD = 0.7); analytical sample was 656–680. Cognitive domains tested were as follows: processing speed (5 tests), visuospatial (3), memory (3), and verbal (3). Brain-imaging variables included PSMD, white matter diffusion parameters, hyperintensity volumes, gray and white matter volumes, and perivascular spaces. PSMD was significantly associated with processing speed (−0.27), visuospatial ability (−0.23), memory ability (−0.17), and general cognitive ability (−0.25); comparable correlations were found with other brain-imaging measures. In a multivariable model with the other imaging variables, PSMD provided independent prediction of visuospatial ability and general cognitive ability. This incremental prediction, coupled with its ease to compute and possibly better tractability, might make PSMD a useful brain biomarker in studies of cognitive aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Speed of processing, one of the main cognitive deficits in schizophrenia is most frequently measured with a digit symbol-coding test. Performance on this test is additionally affected by writing speed and the rate at which symbol-digit relationships are learned, two factors that may be impaired in schizophrenia. This study aims to investigate the effects of sensorimotor speed, short-term learning and long-term learning on task performance in schizophrenia. In addition the study aims to explore differences in learning effects between patients with schizophrenia and elderly individuals. Methods: Patients with schizophrenia (N=30) were compared with age-matched healthy controls (N=30) and healthy elderly volunteers (N=30) during the Symbol Digit Subsstitution Test (SDST). The task was administered on a digitizing tablet, allowing precise measurements of the time taken to write each digit (writing time) and the time to decode symbols into their corresponding digits (matching time). The SDST was administered on three separate days (day 1, day 2, day 7). Symbol-digit repetitions during the task represented short-term learning and repeating the task on different days represented long-term learning.Results: The repetition of the same symbol-digit combinations within one test and the repetition of the test over days resulted in significant decreases in matching time. Interestingly, these short-term and long-term learning effects were about equal among the three groups. Individual participants showed a large variation in the rate of short-term learning. In general, patients with schizophrenia had the longest matching time whereas the elderly had the longest writing time. Writing time remained the same over repeated testing.Conclusion: The rate of learning and sensorimotor speed were found to have a substantial influence on the SDST score. However, large individual variation in learning rate should be taken into account in the interpretation of task scores for

The author discusses diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) including existence of executive dysfunction (ED) that causes antidepressants failure; development of treatments for ED that includes computerized cognitive training (CCT) and association of problems with implementation of CCT.

Objective: Speed of processing, one of the main cognitive deficits in schizophrenia is most frequently measured with a digit-symbol-coding test. Performance on this test is additionally affected by writing speed and the rate at which symbol-digit relationships are learned, two factors that may be impaired in schizophrenia.This study aims to investigate the effects of sensorimotor speed, short-term learning, and long-term learning on task performance in schizophrenia. In addition, the study aims to explore differences in learning effects between patients with schizophrenia and elderly individuals. Methods: Patients with schizophrenia (N D30) were compared with age-matched healthy controls (N D30) and healthy elderly volunteers (N D30) during the Symbol-Digit Substitution Test (SDST). The task was administered on a digitizing tablet, allowing precise measurements of the time taken to write each digit (writing time) and the time to decode symbols into their corresponding digits (matching time). The SDST was administered on three separate days (day 1, day 2, day 7). Symbol-digit repetitions during the task represented short-term learning and repeating the task on different days represented long-term learning. Results: The repetition of the same symbol-digit combinations within one test and the repetition of the test over days resulted in significant decreases in matching time. Interestingly, these short-term and long-term learning effects were about equal among the three groups. Individual participants showed a large variation in the rate of short-term learning. In general, patients with schizophrenia had the longest matching time whereas the elderly had the longest writing time. Writing time remained the same over repeated testing. Conclusion:The rate of learning and sensorimotor speed was found to have a substantial influence on the SDST score. However, a large individual variation in learning rate should be taken into account in the interpretation of task scores for processing speed. Equal learning rates among the three groups suggest that unintentional learning in schizophrenia and in the elderly is preserved. These findings are important for the design of rehabilitation programs for schizophrenia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To examine the correlation between smoking status and different domains of cognitive function in elderly Americans., Methods: We used data from the 2011 to 2014 U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Participants over 60 years with available smoking history and cognitive function data were enrolled in our analysis. The NHANES study included the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) assessment, the Animal Fluency Test (AFT), and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) to assess cognition. Multivariate regression analyses were used to estimate the association between cigarette smoking and cognitive function., Results: A total of 2,932 participants were enrolled in the analysis, including 372 (12.7%) current smokers, 1,115 (38%) former smokers, and 1,445 (49.3%) never smokers. Never smokers had in average 3.82 (95% CI, 2.21 to 5.43) points more than current smokers in the DSST, whereas former smokers had 3.12 (95% CI, 1.51 to 4.73) points more than current smokers. Besides, smoking was not associated with the results of the AFT or the CERAD test., Conclusions: This study suggests that cigarette smoking is associated with processing speed among the American elderly., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Zhang, Zhang, Chen, Zhu, Zhou, Zhang, Dong and Cao.)