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We studied human casualties in the buffer zone of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve to gain insights into the factors responsible for elephant attacks on humans. We interviewed victims' families for those that got killed and victims that got injured, over the past six years. Human behaviour was responsible for more casualties than elephant behaviour. Casualties were mainly caused by people's negligence of threats and confrontation of elephants. Providing awareness about elephant ecology and training people about deterrents and methods for avoiding conflict, along with regular patrolling and maintenance of electric fences is required to ensure the safety of both people and elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to most mammals, elephants express a life-long dentition change called molar progression, with a continuous change in size of the grinding surface. This may impact chewing efficiency and consequently lead to age-related variation in faecal particle size. Assessing faecal particle size relies on tedious laboratory analysis and would benefit by a more simple and practical method. We develop such a method and evaluate its reliability by comparison with the results from laboratory analysis. The method was based on measuring the 10 largest particles per sample and produced comparable ranking as laboratory analysis, in four test-elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage (PEO) was established in 1975 to rehabilitate orphaned wild elephants. Elephants at the PEO have the freedom to roam in the facility during the day. Captive breeding was encouraged at PEO and the first captiveborn elephant was reported in 1984. Up to now, there have been a total of 70 successful births by 32 females. The M:F sex ratio was 1:0.84, the birth rate was 1.8 ± 2.92 /year and the stillbirth rate 0.13 ± 0.410 /year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe villagers' experiences and perceptions of human-elephant conflict (HEC), and attitudes towards elephant conservation near elephant habitat in southeastern Bangladesh. The study was based on a questionnaire survey administered through in person interviews. We sampled 171 respondents across 109 villages. The results showed that crop raiding and damage to houses, fruit gardens, and seedlings were perceived as the causes of conflict. Seventy percent believed habitat improvement as useful for HEC mitigation and 73% favoured elephant conservation, at least in principle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife corridors play an important role in connecting elephant habitats across India. Monitoring them is essential to assess their usage by elephants and to identify the anthropological risks to their persistence. We present the results of a gridbased survey of elephants for the Kardikkal-Madeshwara corridor in Bannerghatta National Park. Our findings indicated high use by elephants, with more observations recorded within grids which overlay natural habitats of the park than those that overlay human dominated land. The corridor remains under high human pressure, indicating the need for continued attention to maintaining corridor function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated methods for rapid composting of elephant dung to support management of waste generated in establishments holding captive elephants. Elephant dung treated with effective microorganisms (EM) or urea alone, both EM and urea, and untreated dung were composted for 45 days. C:N ratios of treatments were estimated at 10-day intervals. Phytotoxicity and maturity of compost were evaluated after 45 days by a germination bioassay. Addition of urea decreased the C:N ratio more rapidly. EM and urea treatment resulted in an optimum C:N ratio of 22:1 after 20 days. Phytotoxicity was lowest in dung composted with EM and urea. Maturity of compost as indicated by seedling tolerance index was highest in EM and urea treatment. We conclude that EM and urea treatment results in the fastest composting and provides the best compost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population structure provides important information for managing and conserving free ranging Asian elephant populations. A variety of size-age classes, based on estimating height or age and measuring captive animals of known age, have been used previously. Here we propose a simple scale, using the individual's height relative to an adult female. We also indicate morphological characters of relevance, where determining relative height maybe an issue, as in the case of adult males. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small numbers of Asian elephants remain in pockets of forest within southeastern Bangladesh. An analysis of Landsat images indicated = 36% of elephant habitat loss from 1989-2015, and a 2015 ground inventory of 7 habitat patches, revealed decreasing canopy cover. Vegetation communities were dominated by non-native species, and dung surveys suggested elephants were favouring habitat patches with relatively more tree and bamboo species, and canopy cover. Given recent geo-political developments in Bangladesh, effective elephant conservation requires urgent habitat restoration that also addresses human requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bunong farms (chamkars) of Andoung Kraloeng village in Cambodia's Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary are increasingly being raided by elephants, leading to humanelephant conflict. We conducted twenty interviews in November 2017 to obtain information concerning this issue. Regression analysis found positive correlations between elephant group size and raided chamkar size, and between group size and distance of raided chamkars from permanent water sources. Results also suggested a decrease in effectiveness of deterrence methods and locals' tolerance toward elephants. This study highlights the need to implement effective mitigation actions before conflict escalates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provision of a sufficient amount of satisfying rest is considered a critical welfare aspect in zoo animal care. According to our current knowledge, elephants require regular bouts of lying rest in order to have restorative sleep. This case report demonstrates how a geriatric and severely handicapped Asian elephant was supported successfully to resume lying rest. Through the provision of an appropriate slope to lie on, her bouts of lying rest became shorter, more frequent and more laterally balanced. At the same time her total daily duration of lying rest increased and the days without having any lying rest at all decreased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reservoir-bed grasslands of the Minneriya reservoir, Sri Lanka, support a large gathering of Asian elephants in the dry season. We conducted observations on elephant numbers over 12 months in 2019/2020 but did not observe as high numbers of elephants as previously. Monthly elephant numbers at the reservoir were linked to the availability of grassland. Changes in water-related parameters of the reservoir owing to the water supply from the Moragahakanda reservoir may account for the observed differences in elephant numbers. Water regulation to mimic the seasonal patterns is necessary for the endurance of the elephant gathering at Minneriya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined data on elephant mortality from the year 2001 to 2018. Elephant deaths greatly increased over the last eight years. From 2001–2018, 1061 elephants died in 943 incidents with an average of 58.94% deaths per year. Elephant deaths peaked in winter and mostly occurred outside protected areas in human dominated landscapes. Disease was the major cause of death, followed by accidents and unknown reasons. The highest mortality was in the age class 21–40 years while 58.15% of deaths were of individuals less than 20 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The elephants living in Pu Mat National Park and Anh Son Watershed Forest, often move out to adjacent areas and cause severe human-elephant conflict (HEC). The main reasons for the HEC are, reduction and degradation of natural forest, human disturbance of elephant habitat, not taking elephants into account in land-use planning and poor HEC management. Local communities are very poor and have little experience in HEC prevention. HEC significantly impacts their livelihoods, threatens their lives and induces significant psychological stress, resulting in decreased support for elephant conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bornean elephants are a central issue in oil palm development in Sabah. An initiative was launched to find solutions to reduce the conflict by forming a multistakeholder working group. The main issues identified were insufficient land-use planning due to the development of new oil palm areas and incorrect placement of electric fences. Satellitecollared elephant movement data was used to guide site-specific management options. The working group proved to be a crucial platform where collaborative actions were implemented, including re-allocating land and the strategic placement of fences. These efforts allowed the continuation of elephant movement through the landscape, as indicated by the tracking data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Musculoskeletal disorders represent one of the many challenges in elephant care. In contrast to other species, elephants rarely express distinct lameness despite severe lesions. Therefore, alterations in their posture and weight distribution while standing seem to be easier to recognize. To raise the practitioners' awareness of these changes and facilitate the earliest possible recognition, a visual guide was compiled. Pictorial documents were collected by the author while visiting 70 elephant-keeping facilities across Europe. The resulting guide provides a description of the healthy baseline state and a series of common alterations. Awareness for corresponding visual cues will further improve monitoring of musculoskeletal disorders in elephants under human care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Karen villages in northern Thailand, humans often coexist with captive wild Asian elephants, in what can be described as a multispecies culture. A variety of ethnographic data is presented here as evidence of this culture, including an elephant origin story, rituals performed throughout elephant lives, and associated beliefs and practices. Together these rituals and beliefs mediate and define the human-elephant relationship. This relationship exists not only on physical, intellectual and emotional levels, but also within the spiritual worldview of Karen people. In this worldview, elephants are entangled in the same complex relations with spirits, both within their bodies and within the landscape in which they live, that influence Karen human lives. The shared life between humans, elephants and spirits can be understood as a form of multispecies culture resulting from a long process of cultural co-evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing anthropogenic pressures has led to the fragmentation of Asian elephant habitats, affecting their numbers, demography and ranging patterns across their range. Baseline information on the demography and population dynamics of free-ranging Asian elephants is often unavailable. Population monitoring at the landscape level has many constraints, including those of visibility, habitat, terrain and field logistics, among several others. While knowing elephant numbers may be important for managing local populations, demographic parameters and distribution patterns are perhaps more crucial to ascertain long-term trends for conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand the population viability of captive elephants in eastern Arunachal Pradesh, India, we documented the demographic parameters, food and feeding of captive elephants and their keepers’ status in private and forest department systems during 2016– 2017. The two systems together managed 135 elephants, with 84% being adults and a male bias in younger age-classes. Fecundity was 0.04 calves/adult female/year and mortality was 2.2%, which were lower than in southern India. Given the observed demographic parameters, we recommend, the Arunachal Forest Department to gradually increase its captive stock through effective management and use them in patrolling and eco-tourism for long-term sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We observed the foraging behaviour of five semi-free-roaming elephants in Thailand from December 2016 to October 2019 using all occurrence focal sampling. The elephants consumed 165 species of plants representing 56 families. Dendrocalamus sp. (bamboo), accounted for 40.3% of the elephants’ foraging time. The elephants spent significantly more time browsing than grazing. A significant increase in grazing during the cold season may be attributed to increased access to cultivated fields. Despite this increase, bamboo remained the principle component of the elephants’ diet across seasons. This study provides baseline information regarding foraging by semi-free ranging elephants in a previously undescribed area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) has become a serious socio-economic and conservation problem in Sri Lanka. We assessed the overall level of HEC in the country during 2010-2019 and the patterns of conflict in relation to administrative districts. Globally, Sri Lanka had the highest annual elephant deaths and second highest human deaths, due to HEC. Male mortality was higher in both elephants and people. Conflict has greatly increased in intensity and geographic extent from that reported previously. The highest conflict has shifted from the Northwest to the East and North-Central areas, with the Northwest showing a decline in conflict. The changes in different areas were probably related to differences in management actions and developmental activity. Further increase in HEC is likely in the Eastern, North-Central and Northern regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic perturbation in the form of agriculture and settlement expansion results in loss of natural forest habitat, biodiversity and fragmentation of corridors. The disproportionate sharing of forest resource and shrinkage of the sojourn ground creates food scarcity for wild animals and forces them to move to a new habitat. During this migration human-animal conflict becomes a common issue in the corridors and edges in between. Such a typical situation of human-elephant conflict has been happening in the Panchet Forest Division of Bankura District, West Bengal, India. This paper aims to assess the causes and consequences arising from this elephant migration event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we have attempted to provide a preliminary understanding of the centuries-old tradition of elephants being kept in captivity in the state of Kerala and the gradual cultural transformations - from an initial reverence as living forms of lord Ganesha through being status symbols of the landed gentry to celebrities with ardent fan following in contemporary social media - that have changed the nature of their relationship with the local communities with the passage of time. The recent past has witnessed a deterioration of the traditional elephant-mahout relationship, the age-old knowledge of elephant biology and behaviour and their welfare increasingly jeopardised in recent times. Increasing commercialisation of pageantries has led to heightened conflict incidents in captivity and untimely mortalities. An exhaustive understanding of different aspects of captive elephant maintenance is warranted, to ensure better welfare practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The villages surrounding Bannerghatta National Park, Karnataka experience high human-elephant conflict in the form of crop loss. Forest Department maintained elephant barriers are not entirely effective in keeping elephants away from farmlands and cooperative participation in crop guarding is low. We assessed farmers' attitudes to suggestions of community implementation of chilli-tobacco barriers and beehive fences to prevent crop raiding. We found 64% of the farmers were willing to implement these methods. Despite the higher effort required, the chilli-tobacco barrier was preferred, due to lower costs. While commitment by farmers to defend their crops are crucial for problem control, the study did not show a very high acceptance of community-led barriers and the attitudes of the farmers towards the Forest Department and elephants were negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Range extension of elephants has been observed in northern Western Ghats over the past few decades. The Sindhudurg District is one such area experiencing recent colonization by elephants. We obtained data on crop raiding incidences between 2002 and 2015 from Range Forest Offices in Sindhudurg District. Information was available on 9148 crop raiding cases. Data analysis showed that 36 different crops were damaged and coconut (44%), rice (22%), banana (20%) and areca palm (8%) were the worst affected. Crop raiding frequency was higher during the winter season followed by monsoon and lowest in summer. November and December experienced a peak in crop raiding. Rice was recognized as an attractant for elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compared data (from 2009-2016) on the proportion of sightings of males in musth (versus not in musth), sex ratio, and male age structure in Nagarahole and Bandipur National Parks (Kabini population) with previously published data from Mudumalai and Kaziranga National Parks. The proportions of musth sightings were significantly lower in Kabini than in the other populations. The Kabini population had a more female-biased adult sex ratio than Kaziranga, but a similar adult sex ratio to the Mudumalai study. The male age structure was similar between Kaziranga and Kabini, whereas there was a greater proportion of very old (45+ years of age) males in Mudumalai than in Kabini. Based on the sex ratio or age structure, there were fewer old males in Kabini than in Kaziranga or Mudumalai. Thus, the occurrence or duration of musth seems to be influenced by the number of old competitors in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asian elephants around Bardiya National Park (lowland Nepal) regularly raid crops in the park's buffer zone and occasionally kill people. Retaliatory killing has been absent till now but emotions run high, and people requested a fence or a concrete wall. We designed an electric fence that allows people and livestock to pass freely but stops elephant. The fence has a single electrified wire, 9000 V, with electrified braces and 'whiskers' placing the poles out of reach of trunks. The design was tested experimentally, and after breach of the prototype, the final design has not been breached to date. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a behavioural enrichment project for a male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) at Perth Zoo, that utilizes the elephant's auditory abilities. The project provided cognitive challenges for the elephant, as well as extending his use of listening discrimination and investigation of his environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We carried out a viability study of elephant corridors at three possible sites in northern West Bengal and an economic analysis of providing forest cover to these corridors. Corridor boundary and land-use types were mapped by taking multiple GPS points. A preliminary analysis indicated that the total profit from forest plantations is 2,557,000 Rs./ha which is much higher than the 440,000 Rs./ha from the tea gardens over a 20-year period. Our preliminary study brings out the importance of new ways of approaching the issue of strengthening wildlife corridors which take into account both economic and social factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]