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Despite growth in the number of women pursuing business and entrepreneurship careers, dominance of masculine traits associated with these occupations persists. If business schools use language that subconsciously reinforces gendered stereotypes, students might perpetuate sexist expectations. Using a natural language text processing tool to analyze the written responses of 247 undergraduate students in a US‐based university, we found that student perceptions of entrepreneurs are associated with more masculine characteristics compared to student perceptions of business people. To some degree, female students were more likely to make these associations than male students. Our findings suggest that business schools must do their part to break the cycles that elevate masculine characteristics of entrepreneurship. The negative effects of this manifest in the persistent gender pay gap, rising but still minority numbers of women entrepreneurs, continued practices of rewarding masculine traits in organizations, and ongoing underrepresentation of women students in schools of business. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gender pay gap (GPG) remains significant in most countries and is a key indicator of gender inequality in society. Qualitative research on the GPG is scarce, yet, qualitative perspectives on the GPG are valuable as the ways in which the GPG is understood and talked about shape actions to tackle it. This article focuses on how the GPG is represented in the context of work and organizations, inspired by the "What's the Problem Represented to be?" approach, developed by Carol Bacchi. The analysis draws on qualitative data—63 interviews with employers, employees, and state officials—collected in Estonia which exhibits one of the largest GPGs in the European Union. Five dominant representations of the GPG were identified: the GPG as (a) consciously produced by employers, (b) different pay for the same work, (c) unmeasurable due to "unique" and "incomparable" jobs and workers, (d) produced by women's failure to ask for fair pay, and (e) impossible for employers to reduce because of market forces. Collectively, these representations render the GPG inevitable, downplaying its emergence as a result of specific gendered social practices. This has implications for the employers' and the state's willingness and strategies to reduce the GPG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I analyze the experiences of the world's largest all‐women community health workforce through the lens of liminality. Originally used to describe transition from one state to the other, the concept of liminality in the study of work and organizations can frame workers' experiences of being in‐between established structures and roles in varying degrees, times, and/or places. India's ASHAs, or Accredited Social Health Activists, are community women at the frontlines of the state's health care provisioning. But the state does not categorize them as workers or employees. ASHAs are considered volunteers. Instead of salaries, they are paid task‐based incentives. Based on 14 months of ethnographic fieldwork, including 80 interviews, I find that ASHAs' liminal occupational status as 'paid volunteers' produces conditions of chronic underpayment and control for them, further lowering their already low wages. This has implications for how we understand the gender wage gap. I argue that we need to consider not just how much women are paid, but how the payment is structured, and how that places marginalized women workers in relation to others in the workplace. Moving beyond whether liminality is a negative or positive experience, future research should delineate the conditions under which liminality is negative or positive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the role of the collective wage‐setting institution of "pattern bargaining" in maintaining the gendered hierarchies of the labor market and gender pay gap in Norway. The gendered labor market is considered a main cause of the gender pay gap, yet current research and policy has not examined the relation of the gender pay gap to the way sectoral wages are set. Norway is an interesting case because its wage‐setting model and gender equality are highly esteemed globally. However, although the wage‐setting system in Norway creates an overall more egalitarian wage structure than other advanced industrial countries, it has a built‐in gendered inequality that is not part of its current discussion on resolving the gender pay gap. We introduce egalitarian inequality to conceptualize this. The article examines the presentation of the gender pay gap in relation to the gendered labor market, and how the pattern bargaining model is presented as both a solution and a hindrance, and which discourse dominates. We analyze the public discourse on the gender pay gap and the pattern‐bargaining model, and its interrelations, through the lens of policy advisory commissions appointed by the government, the Norwegian Official Commissions. The findings reveal a dual commitment of upholding both pattern bargaining and gender equality but hardly any willingness to adjust the pattern bargaining model to combat the gender pay gap. A clear hierarchy is expressed in which gender equality is subordinate to pattern bargaining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How are gender inequalities (re)produced in France? These gender inequalities in the labor market are intertwined with other forms of inequality, more insidious because they are less studied, which are played out in the family as well as at school. Finally, in their respective books, Vallet and Bessière & Gollac emphasize how the situation on the labor market remains globally discriminatory for women and this is notably reflected by a significant salary inequality. Keywords: family; France; gender inequalities; school; work EN family France gender inequalities school work 687 692 6 02/15/22 20220301 NES 220301 The recent publication of three important books on gender inequalities, mainly in France, is an opportunity to take stock of the issue and, above all, to show how inequalities in the workplace are intricately connected to forms of inequality in other spheres, primarily the family and school. [Extracted from the article]

Sweden is often described as one of the world's most gender‐equal societies, but the gender pay gap nevertheless remains large. In 2007, a special gender‐equality fund that targeted women workers was successfully implemented in the collective bargaining agreement. Although it decreased the gender pay gap, it was controversial and has never been employed since. The aim of this article is to increase knowledge concerning the conditions for such "gender‐equality bargaining" through a detailed empirical case study. An in‐depth study of the bargaining process casts light on how the institutional features of bargaining have changed after 2007 in a way that significantly restricts further attempts to make relative wage changes in gender‐segregated labor markets. The findings indicate that increased employer coordination and a strong industry norm appear to hinder gender‐equality initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We trace the gender wage gap (GWG) though a mid‐life peak for a cohort born in Britain in 1958 (National Child Development Study) to quantify their life‐course experience of equal and unequal opportunities. Taking hourly pay of full‐timers and part‐timers together, an initial gap between men and women widened substantially during childrearing years. Much, but not all, of the GWG is attributable to divergent work experience, especially in mid‐life. Education‐related differences are minor. Family formation primarily affects the GWG through gender differences in work experience. Family composition is similar for male and female workers, but it attracts opposite wage premia. The GWG, however, is not only linked to family formation. There is a sizeable GWG on labor market entry and there are some otherwise unexplained gaps between the pay of men and women who had not (and did not) become parents, belying the notion that unequal wage treatment is confined to parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several methods of calculation may be used to quantify the gender pay gap. The sociology of quantification shows how the construction of indicators may be employed to define certain notions. Literature on the performativity of quantification also highlights the effect that acts of calculation can have upon reality. This article combines these fields as it examines the illocutionary performative power of the 'equal pay index', which was developed by the French government in 2018, and which companies are legally obliged to publish on an annual basis. The article therefore draws on different types of documents: leaflets explaining the construction of the index, government‐issued communications, statements given by members of the government and companies' own communications. With the aid of this index, the government can provide more precise definitions of the notion of equal pay and the field of action of companies. The novelty and benefits of the current case lie in the pairing of a relatively classic tool for commensuration and a subject — equal pay — that has suffered from a vague definition for decades. Furthermore, this article offers a conjoint study of the mode of calculation of the index and the emerging discourse around it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the effect of public‐contest recruitment on earnings for men and women using Italian microdata over a time period of ten years. We find that the gender pay gap vanishes, and even reverses among young employees when they are selected through public contests. The results suggest that selection mechanisms like public contests may offer a way for merit‐based and gender‐fair wage‐setting. However, since public contests and the public sector are highly correlated, we analyse the gender pay gap by taking into account both the connection between the public and private sector and the open contest issue. By decomposing our results by sector, we find that public contests are a necessary but not sufficient condition for merit‐based and gender‐fair recruitment. Similarly, the institutional environment of the public sector is a necessary but not sufficient condition for ensuring that public contests are merit‐based and gender‐fair screening devices. Taken together, these two factors cause the gender pay gap to disappear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this opinion piece, we argue the current pandemic is shining a light on caregiving as critical work that is under‐valued and under‐paid. We call upon national lawmakers to raise the value of care work. Doing so would also make progress in solving another national crisis: closing the gender wage gap. We explore how the gender wage gap is driven primarily by the fact that men and women sort into different work, with women being over‐represented in work where they care for others and in work that allows them to care for their families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women have made significant progress in the medical profession, but despite this trend towards equality, the gender pay gap persists. This study investigates the determinants of earning differentials among physicians in Italy. This analysis is based on a dataset of more than 1000 doctors working in five hospitals in the Lombardy region. Data were collected through an online survey with a response rate of 48.7 per cent. Women's concentration in the lower ranks of the career ladder, their lower propensity to work as private practitioners and their lower concentration in surgical specialties contribute to the gender income gap. Having children and a spouse or a cohabiting partner entails a premium on income for men, but no penalty for women, which suggests that positive discrimination towards fathers and husbands is stronger than negative discrimination towards mothers and wives. On the other hand, the gender gap associated with marital and parental status is stronger in public hospitals than in private hospitals, at least up to the second child. Once differences in characteristics are controlled, women earn 18 per cent less than men. This penalty should be ascribed to employer's discrimination and/or unobserved characteristics. These findings challenge the human capital perspective by calling for attention into the role of structural mechanisms in producing inequalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses articles in the issue on topics including information on the organizational and regulatory strategies for the pay equity of women; discussions on the job evaluation as a systematic tool for addressing gender inequality related to the wages.

There is a modest but growing empirical body of evidence on the influence of managers' gender on the wages of their male and female subordinates. Most of these studies, however, suffer from a very raw approximation of the managers' gender by the share of women in charge, and often lack many important gender‐specific personal characteristics, such as non‐cognitive skills and life–work preferences, which can lead to biased results. This article copes with the mentioned deficiencies by employing a very rich and representative dataset of 1948 employees from the Czech Republic. It reveals surprising results as it shows that the gender of the manager has an effect on the level of wages, but not on the gender wage gap. It also shows that the gender of the manager and his/her subordinate has only a weak impact on the remuneration of an employee´s non‐cognitive skills and life–work preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how interactions between the doing of gender and class at institutional and organizational levels perpetuate inequality for aged care workers. In particular, it investigates how managers 'do gender' and class in relation to their care workers' work-life balance and the unintended consequences of this for aged care workers. The research data comprised interviews with female managers and aged care workers from four case studies in residential aged care in New Zealand. We argue that despite best intentions, the consequences of managers' doing gender and class results in continuing low wages, poor work-life balance and disempowerment at work for aged care workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the effect of collective bargaining on the gender pay gap in the printing industry. This sector was subject to multi-employer bargaining for around 90 years, until 2010. The article analyses gendered collective bargaining processes through the mechanism of symbolic power, that is, the power of interpretation and definition, and utilizes Walton and McKersie's seminal work on bargaining behaviour to understand the processes that have prevented the closing of the pay gap. It finds that symbolic power operates within the sub-processes of attitudinal structuring and intra-organizational bargaining to de-legitimize women's role in equal pay bargaining, alongside distributive bargaining tactics that preclude equal pay bargaining, thereby creating the impression that women are irrelevant to bargaining processes and ensuring relative invisibility for issues of importance to equality bargaining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to illustrate differences in the gender wage gap in 13 EU member states, using figures taken from the Household Panel for 2000. The methodology is based primarily on the kernel density functions of men's and women's wages. A range of situations can be observed from the Mediterranean countries (with a smaller gender pay gap) to the very specific cases of Austria and the UK and to northern European countries where the gender pay gap is chiefly the result of a larger proportion of men at higher-paid levels. We also offer conclusions on the relevance of public employment, part-time employment and short-term hiring to explain the gender wage gap in each of the countries studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender pay differences are not merely a problem for women returning to work and part-time employees, but also for those in full-time, continuous careers. In data from cohort studies, the gender wage gap for full-time workers in their early thirties fell between 1978 and 2000. This equalization reflects improvements in women’s education and experience rather more than a move towards equal treatment. Indeed, had the typical woman full-timer in 2000 been paid at men’s rates she would have actually received higher pay than the typical man. Within one cohort, passing from age 33 to 42, gender inequality increased. This was partly due to differences in the qualifications and experience of the women in employment at those points, but unequal treatment also rose among women employed full time at both ages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the latter half of the 1980s, when it was becoming apparent in Canada that previous equal pay policies had failed to close the gender wage gap, a number of provincial governments introduced pro–active pay equity policies. All these initiatives required the negotiation of pay equity in unionized workplaces. Leading up to the implementation of pay equity in Ontario, industrial relations specialists predicted an insurmountably conflictual process, whereas governments expected a new level of partnership with unions. Given these opposite expectations, the article aims to identify any significant patterns of cooperation and conflict in the pay equity bargaining process and to explore reasons for their dynamic. Based on a case study of Newfoundland’s health sector, neither prediction was correct as both conflict and cooperation occurred. It is argued that both the specificity and differences in the negotiations studied can be better understood by exploring the complex intertwinings of gender and class, namely, the ongoing articulation of their main manifestations: a reinforcing hierarchy and a transformative labour–feminist politic in the unions involved. The article concludes with some theoretical and policy observations concerning the importance of building in gender and class to current models of cooperative collective bargaining, as well as recognizing their importance in the pay equity process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some thirty years after the introduction of pay equity provisions in Australia and Britain, continued encroachments on the gender pay gap seem inordinately difficult to deliver. This article provides some reflection on the prosecution of pay equity cases in the two countries over this period, and seeks to identify lessons that can be drawn by contrasting the different approaches that have evolved. We are concerned in particular with the impact of decentralizing trends, and the potential to develop strategies that can operate effectively in these circumstances. We show that while Britain began with relatively narrow provisions, these have gradually been extended through case law. However, job evaluation processes have proved tortuous and time-consuming, and the main successes have been in the more regulated sectors of the economy, particularly the public sector. In contrast, while Australia has enjoyed significant advantages associated with its more centralized industrial relations framework, this has not been without costs, and Australia has little of the case experience acquired in Britain to rely on as the benefits of centralization are eroded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines how structural features of a labor market affect the size of the male-female earnings differential in that market. Theoretical predictions are tested using data on the earnings of male and female academics in the US. Measures of labor market structure are shown to be significantly associated with the size of the earnings differential in 56 labor markets corresponding to specific academic disciplines. As predicted, an oversupply of labor within a market and greater career embeddedness in a single organization within a market increased the size of the earnings gap between men and women. Contrary to predictions, greater flows of information in the market and market permeability had no impact on the size of the earnings differential within markets. In addition, higher percentages of women in the market decreased the wage differential within markets. Additional analysis at the individual level found that men were penalized less than women when labor market conditions led to lower wages. Findings generally support the theoretical position that structural characteristics of the labor market affect the ability of employers to engage in salary discrimination against women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]