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Slow moving landslides are widespread geomorphological features in the Northern Apennines of Italy where they represent one of the main landscape forming processes. The lithology of the Northern Apennines fold and thrust belt is characterized by alternations of sandstone, siltstone and clayshales, also known as flysch, and clay shales with a chaotic block in matrix fabric, which are often interpreted as tectonic or sedimentary melanges. While flysch rocks with a high pelitic fraction host earthslides that occasionally evolve into flow like movements, earthflows are the dominant landslide type in chaotic clay shales. In the present work, we document the kinematic response to rainfall of landslides in these different lithologies using radar interferometry. The study area includes three river catchments in the Northern Apennines. Here, the Mediterranean climate is characterized by two wet seasons during autumn and spring respectively, separated by dry summers and winters with moderate precipitation. We use SAR imagery from the X-band satellite COSMO SkyMed and from the C-band satellite Sentinel 1 to retrieve spatial displacement measurements between 2009 and 2016 for 25 landslides in our area of interest. We also document detailed temporal and spatial deformation signals for eight representative landslides, although the InSAR derived deformation signal is only well constrained by our dataset during the years 2013 and 2015. In spring 2013, long enduring rainfalls struck the study area and numerous landslide reactivations were documented by the regional authorities. During 2013, we measured higher displacement rates on the landslides in pelitic flysch formations compared to the earthflows in the clay shales. Slower mean velocities were measured on most landslides during 2015. We analyse the temporal deformation signal of our eight representative landslides and compare the temporal response to precipitation. We show that earthslides in pelitic flysch formations accelerate faster than earthflows in chaotic clay shales and reach higher velocities, while the kinematic behaviour of the earthflows can be described as rather steady with only minor accelerations. Although we have no detailed pore pressure measurements for the period of interest, the observed behaviour can be explained in our view by the morphological and hydrological characteristics of the different landslide types. On the one hand landslide material and bedrock in the pelitic flysch rocks are more resistant, which is why slope angles are higher in this lithology. On the other hand, landslides in the pelitic flysch formations have often deeper slip surfaces and landslide material is more permeable. This is why long persistent rainfall is necessary to saturate the landslide material and induce pore pressures that are high enough to trigger displacement.

Landscape evolution in active mountain chains can be dominated by gravitational slope movements. This is observed in a large portion of the Reno river catchment, Apennines, Italy, where weak rocks, such as clayshales, are subject to earthflows that control hillslope morphology and supply sediments to the channel network. In this paper, we evaluate the sediment flux generated by earthflows and compare it with Holocene-averaged deposition rates to assess the contribution of mass movements to landscape evolution. Present-day hillslope sediment flux is estimated by combining measured displacement rates (72 inclinometers) and spatial attributes of earthflows and historical frequency of reactivations. Averaged sediment yield (~ 1.6 x 10 3 t/km 2 /yr) compares well with similar studies on earthflow-dominated landscapes, despite notable differences in methodology. In the study area, the connectivity between hillslopes and the stream network is well developed and no significant sediment sinks influence the sediment transport processes. We document best estimates of regional sediment fluxes and related uncertainties, based on available data. Coarse limestone fragments, present in the clayshales, are used as a natural sediment tracer to allow a comparison with sedimentation rates taking place at the mouth of the intramontane catchment. Here, available borehole logs, 14 C datings and stratigraphic correlations of the alluvial fan are used to obtain an estimate of the deposition that took place during Holocene times. Taking also into account the role of solute transport, sedimentation rates are compared to earthflow sediment production rates. Results show a good agreement and demonstrate that earthflows are the primary mass wasting process in these weak rock lithologies. We document best estimates of regional sediment fluxes and related uncertainties. Present earthflow sediment production outpaces Holocene-averaged sedimentation rates by a factor of two. The gap between sediment production and deposition can be partly justified by uncertainties associated with our estimates and by time-scale differences. With this respect, the dynamic equilibrium between erosion and deposition, is likely affected by intra-Holocene oscillations at a short time scale (10 to 1 ky) attributable to climate variability. Terraced deposits documenting sedimentary episodes would also support such interpretation.

A method proposed for delineating lahar-hazard zones in volcanic valleys is adapted to debris flows. The original method is based on two predictive equations that relate the lahar volume to the cross-sectional inundated area and to the planimetric inundated area. These predictive equations were derived by combining a scaling analysis of lahar kinematics with the statistical analysis of data for 27 historical lahars. This paper tests the applicability of this approach to debris flow fans. Forty debris flow basins in the Italian Alps were surveyed, and data on 27 historical debris flow events were collected in the field or by means of aerial-photo analysis. Collected data reveal that the flow area ( A ) and the planimetric area ( B ) of a debris flow are linearly correlated to the debris flow volume ( V ) on a logarithmic scale, with high statistical significance. Moreover, the computed regression equations are very similar to those obtained from other published datasets on debris flows, leading to the global fitting equations A = 0.08 V 2 / 3 and B = 17 V 2 / 3 . These predictive equations are then implemented in an automated code (DFLOWZ) that delineates the inundated area on a debris flow fan on the basis of a user-specified debris flow volume, taking the statistical uncertainty in the prediction into account. DFLOWZ is simple reproducible, and it can handle both confined and unconfined flow. The model is tested against 10 historical debris flow events, providing a satisfactory agreement between observed and computed inundated areas. In spite of the limitations due to DEM accuracy and statistical uncertainty of the regression parameters, test results show that the method can be useful for practical applications.

A debris flow event occurred in June 1997 in the Dolomites (Eastern Alps, Italy). The phenomenon was directly observed in the field and recorded by a video camera near its initiation area. The debris flow originated shortly after an intense rainstorm (25 mm in 30 min) whose runoff mobilised the loose coarse debris that filled the bottom of the channel in its upper part. The analysis of the steep headwater basin indicates a very short concentration time (9–14 min) that fits the quick hydrological response observed in the field. The debris flow mobilisation was not contemporaneous with the arrival of the peak water discharge in the initiation area probably due to the time required for the saturation of the highly conductive channel-bed material. Channel cross-section measurements taken along the flow channel indicate debris flow peak velocity and discharge ranging from 3.1 to 9.0 m/s and from 23 to 71 m3/s, respectively. Samples collected immediately after deposition were used to determine the water content and bulk density of the material. Channel scouring, fines enrichment and transported volume increase testify erosion and entrainment of material along the flow channel. Field estimates of the rheological properties based on open channel flow of Bingham fluid indicate a yield strength of 5000±400 Pa and relatively low viscosity (60–326 Pa s), probably due to a high percentage of fines (approx. 30%).