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Introduction: Innovative interventions are needed to address the growing burden of breast cancer globally, especially among vulnerable patient populations. Given the success of Community Health Workers (CHWs) in addressing communicable diseases and non-communicable diseases, this scoping review will investigate the roles and impacts of CHWs in breast cancer screening programs. This paper also seeks to determine the effectiveness and feasibility of these programs, with particular attention paid to differences between CHW-led interventions in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and high-income countries (HICs).Methods: A scoping review was performed using six databases with dates ranging from 1978 to 2019. Comprehensive definitions and search terms were established for 'Community Health Workers' and 'breast cancer screening', and studies were extracted using the World Bank definition of LMIC. Screening and data extraction were protocolized using multiple independent reviewers. Chi-square test of independence was used for statistical analysis of the incidence of themes in HICs and LMICs.Results: Of the 1,551 papers screened, 33 were included based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Study locations included the United States (n=27), Bangladesh (n=1), Peru (n=1), Malawi (n=2), Rwanda (n=1), and South Africa (n=1). Three primary roles for CHWs in breast cancer screening were identified: education (n=30), direct assistance or performance of breast cancer screening (n=7), and navigational services (n=6). In these roles, CHWs improved rates of breast cancer screening (n=23) and overall community member knowledge (n=21). Two studies performed cost-analyses of CHW-led interventions.Conclusion: This review extends our understanding of CHW effectiveness to breast cancer screening. It illustrates how CHW involvement in screening programs can have a significant impact in LMICs and HICs, and highlights the three CHW roles of education, direct performance of screening, and navigational services that emerge as useful pillars around which governments and NGOs can design effective programs in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The goal of the public procurement of pharmaceuticals is to purchase sufficient quantities of high-quality pharmaceuticals at cost-effective prices for a given population. This goal can be undercut if corruption infiltrates the procurement process. Good procurement practices can help mitigate the risks of corruption and support equitable access to affordable and high-quality medicines. Objectives: This paper aims to 1) examine manifestations of corruption in the pharmaceutical procurement process and key factors behind them, and 2) identify how to design and implement effective anti-corruption, transparency and accountability mechanisms within this process. Methods: This paper was informed by a narrative literature review from 1996 to the present. The search focused on publications that addressed the issue of pharmaceutical procurement and governance and corruption issues. Our search included peer-reviewed literature, books, grey literature such as working papers, reports published by international organizations and donor agencies, and some media articles. Some documents used in this paper were already known to the authors. Results: Procurement is highly vulnerable to corruption particularly in the health sector. What is more, corruption in the procurement process does not appear to be limited to any one level of government or type of health system. The better integration of accountability, transparency and anti-corruption mechanisms in the procurement process is needed to reduce the risk of corruption. Conclusions: Lessons learned suggest that anti-corruption, transparency and accountability mechanisms in the pharmaceutical procurement process, such as open contracting and integrity pacts are helpful towards reducing the risk of corruption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malaria during pregnancy is a major global health concern, with approximately 10,000 pregnant women dying from malaria-related anaemia each year. The World Health Organization has suggested intermittent preventive treatment with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (IPTp-SP) to avert malaria infection in pregnant women in malaria-endemic areas, but this intermittent preventive (IP) treatment is at risk of becoming ineffective due to parasite resistance and the contraindication in HIV-infected women. This paper argues that alternative IP treatments such as dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP) should be explored, alongside the urgent need to investigate antimalarial cycling strategies. Additionally, the cost-effectiveness of IPTp-DP should be evaluated, as well as potential barriers to IP treatment such as medication stockouts, late attendance at antenatal clinics, lack of autonomy and freedom among women, and lack of knowledge about malaria prevention. Health education focusing on malaria prevention should be incorporated into routine antenatal care programmes to improve patient compliance. A comprehensive approach that includes the administration of IPTp-DP alone along with other measures such as insecticide-treated nets and medical education is the key to addressing the devastating effects of malaria infection in pregnant women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, there has been substantial progress towards integrating our understanding of social determinants of reproductive, maternal, newborn, child, and adolescent health (RMNCAH) into health planning and programs. For these programs, gender inequity remains one of the most harmful factors for women's access to healthcare. Designing RMNCAH programs to be gender-responsive through active engagement with and overcoming of gender-related barriers remains paramount to increasing women's access to and use of health programs. However, the integration of gender within RMNCAH programs and their evaluation is often non-existent or is limited in scope. Building on a prior framework for comprehensive gender analysis in RMNCAH, we discuss key steps used to incorporate a gender lens and analytical approach in the Real Accountability: Data Analysis for Results (RADAR) evaluation framework. In order to effectively address these key areas, gender must be integrated into all stages of the evaluation, including tool development and programmatic activities that are associated with each question. Our paper includes practical activities and tools that evaluators may use to integrate gender into their evaluation tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of research has documented disrespectful, abusive, and neglectful treatment of women in facilities during childbirth, as well as the drivers of such mistreatment. Yet, little research exists on effective interventions to improve Person-Centred Maternal Care (PCMC)—care that is respectful and responsive to individual women's preferences, needs, and values. We sought to extend knowledge on interventions to improve PCMC, with a focus on two factors – provider stress and implicit bias – that are driving poor PCMC and contributing to disparities in PCMC. In this paper we describe the process towards the development of the intervention. The intervention design was an iterative process informed by existing literature, behaviour change theory, formative research, and continuous feedback in consultation with key stakeholders. The intervention strategies were informed by the Social Cognitive Theory, Trauma Informed System framework, and the Ecological Perspective. This process resulted in the 'Caring for Providers to Improve Patient Experience (CPIPE)' intervention, which has 5 components: provider training, peer support, mentorship, embedded champions, and leadership engagement. The training includes didactic and interactive content on PCMC, stress, burnout, dealing with difficult situations, and bias, with some content integrated into emergency obstetric and neonatal care (EmONC) simulations to enable providers apply concepts in the context of managing an emergency. The other components create an enabling environment for ongoing individual behavior and facility culture change. The pilot study is being implemented in Migori County, Kenya. The CPIPE intervention is an innovative theory and evidence-based intervention that addresses key drivers of poor PCMC and centers the unique needs of vulnerable women as well as that of providers. This intervention will advance the evidence base for interventions to improve PCMC and has great potential to improve equity in PCMC and maternal and neonatal health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Mainstreaming of gender, equity, and human rights (GER) is an important focus of the World Health Organization (WHO) and other UN organizations. This paper explores the role of action plans in mainstreaming GER. This paper is informed by a theory-driven evaluation lens. Design: A theory of change framework explored the following seven dimensions of how action plans can implement mainstreaming of GER: awareness of the foundations of GER; understanding of context; planning to impact GER; implementation for GER; monitoring, evaluation, and learning; planning for sustainability; agenda setting and buy-in. The seven dimensions were used to analyze the action plans. Reviewers also explored innovations within each of the action plans for the seven dimensions. Results: GER mainstreaming is more prominent in the foundation, background, and planning components of the plan but becomes less so along the theory of change including implementation; monitoring and evaluation; sustainability; and agenda setting and buy-in. Conclusions: Our analysis demonstrates that much more can be done to incorporate GER considerations into the action planning process. Nine specific recommendations are identified for WHO and other organizations. A theory-driven approach as described in the paper is potentially helpful for developing clarity by which action plans can help with mainstreaming GER considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Action on the social determinants of health (SDH) is relevant for reducing health inequalities. This is particularly the case for South Africa (SA) with its very high level of income inequality and inequalities in health and health outcomes. This paper provides evidence on the key SDH for reducing health inequalities in the country using a framework initially developed by the World Health Organization. Objective: This paper assesses health inequalities in SA and explains the factors (i.e. SDH and other individual level factors) that account for large disparities in health. The relative contribution of different SDH to health inequality is also assessed. Design: A cross-sectional design is used. Data come from the third wave of the nationally representative National Income Dynamics Study. A subsample of adults (18 years and older) is used. The main variable of interest is dichotomised good versus bad self-assessed health (SAH). Income-related health inequality is assessed using the standard concentration index (CI).ApositiveCI means that the rich report better health than the poor. A negative value signifies the opposite. The paper also decomposes the CI to assess its contributing factors. Results: Good SAH is significantly concentrated among the rich rather than the poor (CI=0.008; pB0.01). Decomposition of this result shows that social protection and employment (contribution=0.012; p>0.01), knowledge and education (0.005; p<0.01), and housing and infrastructure (_0.003; p<0.01) contribute significantly to the disparities in good SAH in SA. After accounting for these other variables, the contribution of income and poverty is negligible. Conclusions: Addressing health inequalities inter alia requires an increased government commitment in terms of budgetary allocations to key sectors (i.e. employment, social protection, education, housing, and other appropriate infrastructure). Attention should also be paid to equity in benefits from government expenditure. In addition, the health sector needs to play its role in providing a broad range of health services to reduce the burden of disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics are safe for pain-management when used as recommended. Misuse can increase the risk of hypertension and gastrointestinal problems. To conduct a scoping review of the uses and misuses of OTC analgesics in sub-Saharan Africa, to inform strategies for correct use. Following guidelines for conducting a scoping review, we systematically searched Pubmed, ResearchGate and Google Scholar databases for published articles on OTC analgesic drug use in sub-Saharan Africa, without restrictions on publication year or language. Search terms were 'analgesics', 'non-prescription drugs', 'use or dependence or patterns or misuse or abuse' and 'sub-Saharan Africa'. Articles focusing on prescription drugs were excluded. Of 1381 articles identified, 35 papers from 13 countries were eligible for inclusion. Most were quantitative cross-sectional studies, two were mixed-methods studies, and one used qualitative methods only. About half (n = 17) the studies recorded prevalence of OTC drug use above 70%, including non-analgesics. Headache and fever were the most common ailments for which OTC drugs were taken. Primary sources of OTC drugs were pharmacy and drug shops, and family, friends and relatives as well as leftover drugs from previous treatment. The main reasons for OTC drug use were challenges in health service access, perception of illness as minor, and knowledge gained from treating a previous illness. Information regarding self-medication came from family, friends and neighbours, pharmacies and reading leaflets either distributed in the community or at institutions of learning. OTC drug use tended to be more commonly reported among females, those with an education lower than secondary level, and participants aged ≥50 years. Self-medicating with OTC drugs including analgesics is prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa. However, literature on reasons for this, and misuse, is limited. Research is needed to educate providers and the public on safe use of OTC drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If Sustainable Developmental Goal 3 and Universal Health Coverage are to be achieved, functioning is a third health indicator which must be assessed and integrated into global health population-based metrics alongside mortality and morbidity. In this paper, we define functioning according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and present why functioning is important to measure, especially when considering the need for, and outcome of, rehabilitation and assistive technology (AT). We discuss examples of tools that measure components of functioning through clinical assessment and self-report methodologies, and present the development of a comprehensive population level tool which aligns with the ICF and combines self-report and clinical measurement methods to measure functioning and the need for rehabilitation and AT. Throughout the paper a survivor of Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) is given as an example to illustrate functioning according to the ICF and how access to the interventions of rehabilitation and AT might be of benefit to improve and optimise his/her functioning. We argue that the Global Health community must take action and ensure that the measurement of functioning is well established, accepted and integrated as the third health indicator following the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 3-Delays Model has helped in the identification of access barriers to obstetric care in low and middle-income countries by highlighting the responsibilities at household, community and health system levels. Critiques of the Model include its one-dimensionality and its limited utility in triggering preventative interventions. Such limitations have prompted a review of the evidence to establish the usefulness of the Model in optimising timely access to intrapartum care. To determine the current utility of the 3-Delays Model and its potential for supporting a solution-based approach to accessing intrapartum care. We conducted a qualitative evidence synthesis across several databases and included qualitative findings from stand-alone studies, mixed-methods research and literature reviews using the Model to present their findings. Papers published between 1994 and 2019 were included with no language restrictions. Twenty-seven studies were quality appraised. Qualitative accounts were analysed using the 'best-fit framework approach'. This synthesis included twenty-five studies conducted in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean. Five studies adhered to the original 3-Delays Model's structure by identifying the same factors responsible for the delays. The remaining studies proposed modifications to the Model including alterations of the delay's definition, adding of new factors explaining the delays, and inclusion of a fourth delay. Only two studies reported women's individual contributions to the delays. All studies applied the Model retrospectively, thus adopting a problem-identification approach. This synthesis unveils the need for an individual perspective, for prospective identification of potential issues. This has resulted in the development of a new framework, the Women's Health Empowerment Model, incorporating the 3 delays. As a basis for discussion at every pregnancy, this framework promotes a solution-based approach to childbirth, which could prevent delays and support women's empowerment during pregnancy and childbirth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has affected many countries with increasing morbidity and mortality. Interestingly, many of the actions and policies adopted in countries are linked to the social determinants of health (SDH). The SDH are critical determinants of health and health inequalities that are not directly within the health sector. Policies such as social distancing, good hygiene, avoiding large gatherings, cancelling of social and sports events, using personal protective equipment, schools and restaurants closure, country lockdown, etc. are not necessarily within the health sector but have been promoted to prevent and attenuate COVID-19 infection rates significantly. The SDH that serve to reduce morbidity will forestall or substantially reduce the pressure on many weak health systems in developing countries that cannot cope with increased hospitalisation and intensive health care. This paper argues that one of the most critical social determinants of health (i.e. effective crisis and risk communication), is crucial in many developing countries, including those with fewer confirmed coronavirus cases. We note that the effectiveness of many of the other SDH in reducing the burden of the COVID-19 pandemic hinges on effective communication, especially crisis and risk communication. Although many countries are adopting different communication strategies during the COVID-19 crisis, effective crisis and risk communication will lead to building trust, credibility, honesty, transparency, and accountability. The peculiarity of many developing countries in terms of regional, cultural, linguistic and ethnic diversity is an essential consideration in ensuring effective crisis and risk communication. Developing countries facing significant poverty and disease burden cannot afford to handle the burgeoning of COVID-19 infections and must take preventive measures seriously. Thus, we submit that there is a need to intensify SDH actions and ensure that no one is left behind when communicating crisis and risk to the population to address the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child health is taking the back seat in development strategies. In summarising a newly released collaborative report, this paper calls for a novel conceptual model where child health takes centre stage in relation to the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals. It lays out five principles by which renewed effort and focus would yield the most benefit for children and adolescents. These include: re-defining global child health in the post-2015 era by placing children and adolescents at the centre of the Sustainable Development Goals; striving for equity; realising the rights of the child to thrive throughout the life-course; facilitating evidence informed policy-making and implementation; and capitalising on interlinkages within the SDGs to galvanise multisectoral action. These five principles offer models that together have the potential of improving design, return and quality of global child health programs while re-energising the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-governmental organizations play a vital part in the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals as defined by the United Nations. These Goals also include targets related to noncommunicable diseases. However, non-governmental organizations have played a limited role in this area despite such diseases causing the bulk of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Through their activities, non-governmental organizations should aim to strengthen health systems, yet they often only support these for a single disease. Mali, like many other low- and middle-income countries, is facing an increasing burden of diabetes and a health system not adapted to address this challenge. Santé Diabète, a non-governmental organization based in Mali since 2003, has been working specifically on diabetes, and has developed a wide range of activities to improve the national health system. This paper describes changes in the diabetes environment in Mali between 2004 and 2018 based on two health system assessments carried out using a Rapid Assessment Protocol. Over this period, the health system was strengthened with regard to financing and access to medical products. Leadership and governance, service delivery and health workforce were all improved but still partially rely on sustained support from Santé Diabète. The key lesson from this study is that to be effective in changing the management of noncommunicable diseases in a low- and middle-income country, non-governmental organizations need to play a variety of roles, many of which may change over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous literature reports that low male partner support is a barrier to women's adherence and retention in HIV care programs. This qualitative study explored the relationships between partners to understand what is meant by male partner support in adherence of HIV-positive women in four healthcare facilities in Southern Malawi. We conducted 8 semi-structured focus group discussions (FGDs) with 73 participants (40 men and 33 women) and 10 in-depth interviews (IDIs) between August 2018 to December 2019. Participants were HIV-positive patients, healthcare workers (HCWs), expert patients (EPs), and couples attending the clinic. All data were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using a gender-responsive grounded theory approach. This study confirms previous literature, which suggests male partner support is expressed by providing access to transport to the clinic and accompaniment to appointments. However, we found that men can also control access to resources and decision-making. Support is more complex than previous literature reported and, in some cases, gender norms significantly limit women's capacity to engage in care independently of male support since women need male partner permission to access the resources to attend clinics. This paper suggests that restrictive male-partner gender norms limit women's power to engage in care. Most importantly, the gender analysis reveals that what previous literature describes as male partner support can sometimes hide male partner control in permitting access to resources to attend health facilities. For this reason, policies enhancing male support should consider the gender power relationship between partners to avoid reinforcing gender inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Disability Policy was launched in Zimbabwe in June 2021 and includes a range of commitments for the provision of disability-inclusive health services and rehabilitation. Fulfilment of these pledges is important, as at least 7% of the population have disabilities, and people with disabilities face greater challenges accessing healthcare services and experience worse health outcomes. However, it will require financial investment which is challenging as the needs of people with disabilities are set against a background of widespread health systems failures in Zimbabwe, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Zimbabwe currently faces an epidemic of TB and HIV and a growing burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) with a lack of investment, healthcare staff or infrastructure to provide the necessary care. Urgent action is therefore needed to strengthen the health system and 'build back better' after both the pandemic and the regime change. The Zimbabwean government may face the dilemma, common in many low-resource settings, of whether to focus on disability or to wait until the health system has been strengthened for the majority. This paper proposed four complementary arguments why it is important to focus on people with disabilities. First, this focus respects the rights of people with disabilities, including those specified in the new National Disability Policy. Second, it will be challenging to reach the Sustainable Development Goals, including those on health and other global health targets, without including people with disabilities. Third, there is a growing rationale that disability-inclusive health systems will work better for all, and fourth, that they will create cost savings. Everyone will therefore benefit when the health systems are designed for inclusion. In conclusion, a focus on disability may help to strengthen health systems for all as well as helping to achieve human rights and global development goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Health equity is a priority in the post-2015 sustainable development agenda and other major health initiatives. The World Health Organization (WHO) has a history of promoting actions to achieve equity in health, including efforts to encourage the practice of health inequality monitoring. Health inequality monitoring systems use disaggregated data to identify disadvantaged subgroups within populations and inform equity-oriented health policies, programs, and practices. Objective: This paper provides an overview of a number of recent and current WHO initiatives related to health inequality monitoring at the global and/or national level. Design: We outline the scope, content, and intended uses/application of the following: Health Equity Monitor database and theme page; State of inequality: reproductive, maternal, newborn, and child health report; Handbook on health inequality monitoring: with a focus on low- and middle-income countries; Health inequality monitoring eLearning module; Monitoring health inequality: an essential step for achieving health equity advocacy booklet and accompanying video series; and capacity building workshops conducted inWHOMember States and Regions. Conclusions: The paper concludes by considering how the work of the WHO can be expanded upon to promote the establishment of sustainable and robust inequality monitoring systems across a variety of health topics among Member States and at the global level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: England has a long history of government-commissioned reviews of national inequalities. The latest review, the Marmot Review, was commissioned by a government headed by the same party (the Labour Party) that had introduced the National Health Service in 1948, but the review was implemented by a coalition of different parties (Conservatives and Liberal Democrats). At the same time, a government reform of health services took place, and the monitoring of the existing inequality strategy was changed. Objectives: This paper examines the lessons that can be learned about indicators for monitoring social determinants of health inequalities from the Marmot Review and recent health inequality strategies in England. Design: The paper provides a narrative review of key findings on the collection, presentation, and analysis of routine data in England in the past 5 years, comparing what has been learned from the Marmot Review and other evaluations of the first health inequality strategy in England. Results: The emphasis on monitoring has progressively shifted from monitoring a small number of targets and supporting information to frameworks that monitor across a wide range of determinants of both the causes of ill-health and of health service performance. As these frameworks become ever larger, some consideration is being given to the key indicators. Conclusions: Although the frameworks used in England for monitoring health inequality strategies have developed considerably since the first strategy began, lessons continue to be learned about how monitoring could be improved. Many of these are applicable to countries initiating or reviewing their strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to provide an analytical insight on the current state of knowledge on gender-based violence among people with disabilities, a topic where the level of data is relatively low. We briefly discuss the current research on: (a) the prevalence, risk factors and the theoretical approaches for gender-based violence among people with disabilities. (b) Service provision among people with disabilities who experience gender-based violence. (c) We also highlight areas where further research is required, the applicable theoretical approaches and provide an example on how Sweden is attempting to bridge this knowledge gap through implementing the Disability and Intimate-partner violence project (DIS-IPV) project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The right to health was enshrined in the constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1946 and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The latter Declaration, which also guaranteed women's rights, was signed by almost all countries in the world. Subsequent international conventions reinforced these rights, requiring that women be able to realize their fundamental freedoms and dignity. Although the value of incorporating gender into health systems has been increasingly acknowledged over the years, gender inequalities in health persist. Objective: To introduce a tool to help countries assess their performance in addressing gender inequalities in their health systems, using the example of the Zika virus (ZIKV) in countries of the Americas. Methods: This paper is based on comprehensive reviews of the literature on the links between gender equality, health systems and human rights, and available scientific evidence about an adequate response to ZIKV. Results: The authors present a simple two-part framework from the human rights perspectives of the health system as duty bearer, incorporating WHO's six health system building blocks, and of its clients as rights holders. The authors apply the framework to ZIKV in the Americas, and identify strengths and weaknesses at every level of the health system. They find that when considering gender, health systems have focused mainly on dichotomous sex differences, failing to consider broader gender relations and processes affecting access to services, quality of care, and health outcomes. Conclusions: The authors' framework will permit countries to assess progress toward gender equality in health, within the context of their human rights commitments, by examining each health system building block, and the degree to which clients are realizing their rights. By applying the framework to specific health conditions, gender-related achievements and shortcomings can be identified in each health system component, fostering a more comprehensive and gender-sensitive response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has stricken mental health worldwide. Marginalized populations in low- and middle-income countries have been the most affected, as they were already experiencing barriers to accessing mental health care prior to the pandemic and are unequally exposed to the stressors associated with the health emergency, such as economic ravages or increased risk of complicated disease outcomes. The aim of this paper is to describe a comprehensive initiative resulting from a public-civil partnership to address the increased burden of mental health illness associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in rural Chiapas, Mexico. To address the emerging health needs of the general population and health professionals resulting from the pandemic, Compañeros En Salud (CES), a non-profit civil society organization based in Chiapas, implemented a comprehensive strategy to compensate for the shortage of mental health services in the region in collaboration with the Chiapas Ministry of Health. The strategy included three components: capacity building in mental health care delivery, psychosocial support to the general population, and provision of mental health care to CES collaborating staff. In this capacity building article, implementers from CES and the government share descriptive information on the specific interventions carried out and their beneficiaries, as well as a critical discussion of the strategy followed. Through this strategy, we have been successful in filling the gaps in the public health system to ensure that CES-served populations and CES-collaborating health professionals have access to mental health care. However, further studies to quantify the impact of this intervention in alleviating the burden of mental health illnesses associated with the pandemic are needed. The current situation represents an opportunity to reimagine global mental health. Only through the promotion of community-based initiatives and the development of integrated approaches will we ensure the well-being of marginalized populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescents in Tanzania are at risk of many health problems attributed to limited access to quality sexual and reproductive health services. Health professionals are a crucial part of service delivery, and their perspective on providing care is important in understanding the barriers that hamper access to sexual and reproductive health services for adolescents. Better understanding these barriers will support the development of more effective interventions. This paper explores these perspectives in view of the health-policy context that surrounds them. This study has aimed to explore and understand health professionals' perceptions and attitudes regarding the provision of adolescent sexual and reproductive health care in a selected national sexual and reproductive health programme in the Arusha region and Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania. A qualitative cross-sectional interview design was applied. Sixteen in-depth interviews were conducted with health professionals and community health workers. Data was analysed following inductive thematic analysis. Four main themes are identified in the data: concern about the stigma directed towards adolescents; over-medicalisation of services; difficulty involving adolescent males; and ambiguous policies and contradictory messages. The findings suggest that health professionals providing care in the current adolescent sexual and reproductive health programme must navigate the legacy of vertical health programmes as well as contradicting views and messages that are influenced by social norms, by uncertainties about current laws and by statements from political leaders. The findings suggest that future research, policies and health programmes should consider the perspectives of health professionals and their challenges in delivering care for adolescents to help improve the understanding of how to effectively and sensitively implement sexual and reproductive health programmes for adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals have reaffirmed the international community's commitment to maternal, newborn, and child health, with further investments in achieving quality essential service coverage and financial protection for all. Objective: Using a modified version of the 1978 Tanahashi model as an analytical framework for measuring and assessing health service coverage, this paper aims to examine the system of care at the community level in Ghana's Volta Region to highlight the continued reforms needed to achieve Universal Health Coverage. Methods: The Tanahashi model evaluates health system coverage through five key measures that reflect different stages along the service provision continuum: availability of services; accessibility; initial contact with the health system; continued utilization; and quality coverage. Data from cross-sectional household and health facility surveys were used in this study. Immunization and antenatal care services were selected as tracer interventions to serve as proxies to assess systems bottlenecks. Results: Financial access and quality coverage were identified as the biggest bottlenecks for both tracer indicators. Financial accessibility, measured by enrollment in Ghana's National Health Insurance Scheme was poor with 16.94% presenting valid membership cards. Childhood immunization was high but dropped modestly from 93.8% at initial contact to 76.7% quality coverage. For antenatal care, estimates ranged from 65.9% at initial visit to 25.1% quality coverage. Conclusion: Results highlight the difficulty in achieving high levels of quality service coverage and the large variations that exist within services provided at the primary care level. While vertical investments have been prioritized to benefit specific health services, a comprehensive systems approach to primary health care needs to be further strengthened to reach Ghana's Universal Health Coverage objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Achieving a fair and equitable distribution of health in the population while progressing toward universal health coverage (UHC) is a key focus of health policy in Vietnam. This paper describes health barriers experienced by women (and children by inference) in Vietnam, and measures how UHC, with reference to maternal health services and child mortality rates, is affected by selected social determinants of health (SDH), termed 'barriers'. Methods: Our study uses a cross-sectional design with data from the 2011 Vietnam Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. The study sample includes 11,663 women, aged 15-49 years. Weighted frequency statistics are cross-tabulated with socioeconomic characteristics of the population to describe the extent and distribution of health barriers experienced by disadvantaged women and children in Vietnam. A subset of women who had a live birth in the preceding two years (n_1,383) was studied to assess the impact of barriers to UHC and health. Six multiple logistic regressions were run using three dependent variables in the previous two years: 1) antenatal care, 2) skilled birth attendants, and 3) child death in the previous 15 years. Independent predictor variables were: 1) low education (incomplete secondary education), 2) lack of access to one of four basic amenities. In a second set of regressions, a constructed composite barrier index replaced these variables. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were used to report regression results. Results: In Vietnam, about 54% of women aged 15-49 years in 2011, had low education or lacked access to one of four basic amenities. About 38% of poor rural women from ethnic minorities experienced both barriers, compared with less than 1% of rich urban women from the ethnic majority. Incomplete secondary education or lack of one of four basic amenities was a factor significantly associated with lower access to skilled birth attendants (OR_0.28, 95% CI: 0.14-0.55; OR-0.19, 95% CI: 0.05-0.80) and a higher risk of having had a child death in the previous two years (OR-1.71, 95% CI: 1.28_2.30; OR-1.59, 95% CI: 1.20-2.10). Conclusions: Our study shows the need for accelerating education and infrastructure investments for ethnic minority communities living in rural areas so as to be able to contribute to equity-oriented progress toward UHC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The strategic importance of monitoring social determinants of health (SDH) and health equity and inequity has been a central focus in global discussions around the 2011 Rio Political Declaration on SDH and the Millennium Development Goals. This study is part of the World Health Organization (WHO) equityoriented analysis of linkages between health and other sectors (EQuAL) project, which aims to define a framework for monitoring SDH and health equity. Objectives: This review provides a global summary and analysis of the domains and indicators that have been used in recent studies covering the SDH. These studies are considered here within the context of indicators proposed by the WHO EQuAL project. The objectives are as follows: to describe the range of international and national studies and the types of indicators most frequently used; report how they are used in causal explanation of the SDH; and identify key priorities and challenges reported in current research for national monitoring of the SDH. Design: We conducted a scoping review of published SDH studies in the PubMed® database to obtain evidence of socio-economic indicators. We evaluated, selected, and extracted data from national scale studies published from 2004 to 2014. The research included papers published in English, Italian, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Results: The final sample consisted of 96 articles. SDH monitoring is well reported in the scientific literature independent of the economic level of the country and magnitude of deprivation in population groups. The research methods were mostly quantitative and many papers used multilevel and multivariable statistical analyses and indexes to measure health inequalities and SDH. In addition to the usual economic indicators, a high number of socio-economic indicators were used. The indicators covered a broad range of social dimensions, which were given consideration within and across different social groups. Many indicators included in the WHO EQuAL framework were not common in the studies in this review due to their intersectoral and interdisciplinary nature. Conclusions: Our review illustrates that the attention to SDH monitoring has grown in terms of its importance and complexity within the scientific health literature. We identified a need to make indicators more wide-ranging in order to include a broader range of social conditions. The WHO EQuAL framework can provide intersectoral and interdisciplinary means of building a more comprehensive standardised approach to monitoring the SDH and improving equity in health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Intersectoral perspectives of health are present in the rhetoric of the sustainable development goals. Yet its descriptions of systematic approaches for an intersectoral monitoring vision, joining determinants of health, and barriers or facilitators to accessing healthcare services are lacking. Objective: To explore models of associations between health outcomes and health service coverage, and health determinants and health systems responsiveness, and thereby to contribute to monitoring, analysis, and assessment approaches informed by an intersectoral vision of health. Design: The study is designed as a series of ecological, cross-country regression analyses, covering between 23 and 57 countries with dependent health variables concentrated on the years 2002-2003. Countries cover a range of development contexts. Health outcome and health service coverage dependent variables were derived from World Health Organization (WHO) information sources. Predictor variables representing determinants are derived from the WHO and World Bank databases; variables used for health systems' responsiveness are derived from the WHO World Health Survey. Responsiveness is a measure of acceptability of health services to the population, complementing financial health protection. Results: Health determinants' indicators -- access to improved drinking sources, accountability, and average years of schooling -- were statistically significant in particular health outcome regressions. Statistically significant coefficients were more common for mortality rate regressions than for coverage rate regressions. Responsiveness was systematically associated with poorer health and health service coverage. With respect to levels of inequality in health, the indicator of responsiveness problems experienced by the unhealthy poor groups in the population was statistically significant for regressions on measles vaccination inequalities between rich and poor. For the broader determinants, the Gini mattered most for inequalities in child mortality; education mattered more for inequalities in births attended by skilled personnel. Conclusions: This paper adds to the literature on comparative health systems research. National and international health monitoring frameworks need to incorporate indicators on trends in and impacts of other policy sectors on health. This will empower the health sector to carry out public health practices that promote health and health equity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Knowledge of the aggregate effects of multiple socioeconomic vulnerabilities is important for shedding light on the determinants of growing health inequalities and inequities in maternal healthcare. Objective: This paper describes patterns of inequity in maternal healthcare utilization and analyzes associations between inequity and multiple socioeconomic vulnerabilities among women in Vietnam. Design: This is a repeated cross-sectional study using data from the Vietnam Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys 2000, 2006, and 2011. Two maternal healthcare indicators were selected: (1) skilled antenatal care and (2) skilled delivery care. Four types of socioeconomic vulnerabilities -- low education, ethnic minority, poverty, and rural location -- were assessed both as separate explanatory variables and as composite indicators (combinations of three and four vulnerabilities). Pairwise comparisons and adjusted odds ratios were used to assess socioeconomic inequities in maternal healthcare. Results: In all three surveys, there were increases across the survey years in both the proportions of women who received antenatal care by skilled staff (68.6% in 2000, 90.8% in 2006, and 93.7% in 2011) and the proportions of women who gave birth with assistance from skilled staff (69.9% in 2000, 87.7% in 2006, and 92.9% in 2011). The receipt of antenatal care by skilled staff and birth assistance from skilled health personnel were less common among vulnerable women, especially those with multiple vulnerabilities. Conclusions: Even thoughVietnam has improved its coverage of maternal healthcare on average, policies should target maternal healthcare utilization among women with multiple socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Both multisectoral social policies and health policies are needed to tackle multiple vulnerabilities more effectively by identifying those who are poor, less educated, live in rural areas, and belong to ethnic minority groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy-makers worldwide are increasingly interested in scaling up evidence-based interventions (EBIs) to larger populations, and implementation scientists are developing frameworks and methodologies for achieving this. But scaling-up does not always produce the desired results. Why not? We aimed to enhance awareness of the various pitfalls to be anticipated when planning scale-up. In lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the scale-up of health programs to prevent or respond to outbreaks of communicable diseases has been occurring for many decades. In high-income countries, there is new interest in the scaling up of interventions that address communicable and non-communicable diseases alike. We scanned the literature worldwide on problems encountered when implementing scale-up plans revealed a number of potential pitfalls that we discuss in this paper. We identified and discussed the following six major pitfalls of scaling-up EBIs: 1) the cost-effectiveness estimation pitfall, i.e. accurate cost-effectiveness estimates about real-world implementation are almost impossible, making predictions of economies of scale unreliable; 2) the health inequities pitfall, i.e. some people will necessarily be left out and therefore not benefit from the scaled-up EBIs; 3) the scaled-up harm pitfall, i.e. the harms as well as the benefits may be amplified by the scaling-up; 4) the ethical pitfall, i.e. informed consent may be a challenge on a grander scale; 5) the top-down pitfall, i.e. the needs, preferences and culture of end-users may be forgotten when scale-up is directed from above; and 6) the contextual pitfall, i.e. it may not be possible to adapt the EBIs to every context. If its pitfalls are addressed head on, scaling-up may be a powerful process for translating research data into practical improvements in healthcare in both LMICs and high-income countries, ensuring that more people benefit from EBIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The current approach to global health has significantly contributed to improving it, as evidenced by the progress made toward the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, the health gains achieved are often highly unequitable, and the current approach is expected to be insufficient to meet the future health equity challenges. There is an urgent need to re-think and expand the scope of research and programmatic strategies. Objective: This paper aims to assess the ideological underpinnings of the currently dominant norms in global health, with the goal of highlighting the research and programmatic areas that are marginalized and warrant greater efforts in order to resolve persistent health inequity and achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Methods: We have conducted a critical review of the literature that traces the historical origins of global health to the period between the mid-19th century and the end of the 20th century. Results: Critical review of the historical origins of global health reveals a set of dominant norms in global health that are ideological in character, and profoundly shape the current practice. We identified key manifestations of the ideological underpinnings as 1) Democratic deficit, 2) Depoliticization of the discourse, 3) Marginalization of the scholarship that interrogates the relations of power. Conclusion: Examination of the dominant norms that shape the foundation of our knowledge and action in global health is required to solve persistent health inequity challenges and meet the SDGs. Inversion of the key manifestations of the dominant norms can serve as guiding principles to elaborate alternative frameworks that have the theoretical and programmatic potential for a fundamental rather than an incremental change in the practice of global health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Community participation can provide increased understanding and more effective implementation of strategies that seek to improve outcomes for women and newborns. There is limited knowledge on how participatory processes take place and how this affects the results of an intervention. Objective: This paper presents the results of two years of implementing (2013–2015) community groups for maternal health care in Magu District, Tanzania. Method: A total of 102 community groups were established, and 77 completed the four phases of the participatory learning and action cycle. The four phases included identification of problems during pregnancy and childbirth (phase 1), deciding on solutions and planning strategies (phase 2), implementation of strategies (phase 3) and evaluation of impact (phase 4). Community group meetings were facilitated by 15 trained facilitators and groups met monthly in their respective villages. Data was collected as an ongoing process from facilitator and meeting reports, through interviews with facilitators and local leaders and from focus group discussions with community group participants. Results: The majority of groups prioritized problems related to the availability of and accessibility to health services. The most commonly actioned solution was the provision of health education to the community. Almost all groups (95%) experienced a positive impact on the community as results of their actions, including increased maternal health knowledge and positive behaviour changes among health care workers. Facilitators were positive about the community groups, stating that they were grateful for the gained knowledge on maternal health, and positively regarded the involvement of men in community groups, which are traditionally women-only. Conclusion: The process of establishing and undertaking community groups in itself appeared to have a positive perceived impact on the community. However, sustained behaviour change, power dynamics and financial incentives need to be carefully considered during implementation and sustaining the community groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Syrian conflict has resulted in major humanitarian crises. The risk is particularly high amongst female children who face additional gendered risks, such as harassment and sexual violence, including a rise in prevalence of child marriage. Despite the importance of this topic, current literature remains relatively scarce. Objectives: This study aims to explore the social and healthcare repercussions of Syrian refugee child marriages in Jordan and Lebanon. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out to gather evidence, from a total of eight articles. Data analysis was conducted using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme check tool to systematically assess the trustworthiness, relevance and results of the included papers. Results: The findings of this research identify tradition, honour, economics, fear, and protection-related factors as drivers of child marriage of refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. These motives overlap with findings regarding access to reproductive health and reproductive rights. The lack of autonomy of the child to give informed consent is augmented in the context of protracted violence and displacement. Conclusion: There is a need for a holistic approach to provide safe spaces, education, and protection to young girls and their families to reduce their acceptance of child marriage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: From conception to 6 months of age, an infant is entirely dependent for its nutrition on the mother: via the placenta and then ideally via exclusive breastfeeding. This period of 15 months - about 500 days - is the most important and vulnerable in a child's life: it must be protected through policies supporting maternal nutrition and health. Those addressing nutritional status are discussed here. Objective and design: This paper aims to summarize research on policies and programs to protect women's nutrition in order to improve birth outcomes in low- and middle-income countries, based on studies of efficacy from the literature, and on effectiveness, globally and in selected countries involving in-depth data collection in communities in Ethiopia, India and Northern Nigeria. Results of this research have been published in the academic literature (more than 30 papers). The conclusions now need to be advocated to policy-makers. Results: The priority problems addressed are: intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), women's anemia, thinness, and stunting. The priority interventions that need to be widely expanded for women before and during pregnancy, are: supplementation with iron-folic acid or multiple micronutrients; expanding coverage of iodine fortification of salt particularly to remote areas and the poorest populations; targeted provision of balanced protein energy supplements when significant resources are available; reducing teenage pregnancies; increasing interpregnancy intervals through family planning programs; and building on conditional cash transfer programs, both to provide resources and as a platform for public education. All these have known efficacy but are of inadequate coverage and resourcing. The next steps are to overcome barriers to wide implementation, without which targets for maternal and child health and nutrition (e.g. by WHO) are unlikely to be met, especially in the poorest countries. Conclusions: This agenda requires policy decisions both at Ministry and donor levels, and throughout the administrative system. Evidence-based interventions are established as a basis for these decisions, there are clear advocacy messages, and there are no scientific reasons for delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The literature shows how gender mandates contribute to differences in exposure and vulnerability to certain health risk factors. This paper presents the results of a study developed in the south of Spain, where research aimed at understanding men from a gender perspective is still limited. Objective: The aim of this paper is to explore the lay perceptions and meanings ascribed to the idea of masculinity, identifying ways in which gender displays are related to health. Design: The study is based on a mixed-methods data collection strategy typical of qualitative research. We performed a qualitative content analysis focused on manifest and latent content. Results: Our analysis showed that the relationship between masculinity and health was mainly defined with regard to behavioural explanations with an evident performative meaning. With regard to issues such as driving, the use of recreational drugs, aggressive behaviour, sexuality, and body image, important connections were established between manhood acts and health outcomes. Different ways of understanding and performing the male identity also emerged from the results. The findings revealed the implications of these aspects in the processes of change in the identity codes of men and women. Conclusions: The study provides insights into how the category 'man' is highly dependent on collective practices and performative acts. Consideration of how males perform manhood acts might be required in guidance on the development of programmes and policies aimed at addressing gender inequalities in health in a particular local context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise of the social determinants of health (SDH) discourse on the basis of statistical evidence that correlates ill health to SDH and pictures causal pathways in comprehensive theoretical frameworks led to widespread awareness that health and health disparities are the outcome of complex pathways of interconnecting SDH. In this paper we explore whether and how SDH frameworks can be translated to effectively inform particular national health policies. To this end we identified major challenges for this translation followed by reflections on ways to overcome them. Most important challenges affecting adequate translation of these frameworks into concrete policy and intervention are 1) overcoming the inclination to conceptualize SDH as mere barriers to health behavior to be modified by lifestyle interventions by addressing them as structural factors instead; 2) obtaining sufficient in-depth insight in and evidence for the exact nature of the relationship between SDs and health; 3) to adequately translate the general determinants and pathways into explanations for ill health and limited access to health care in local settings; 4) to develop and implement policies and other interventions that are adjusted to those local circumstances. We conclude that to transform generic SDH models into useful policy tools and to prevent them to transform in SDH themselves, in depth understanding of the unique interplay between local, national and global SDH in a local setting, gathered by ethnographic research, is needed to be able to address structural SD in the local setting and decrease health inequity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Understanding the magnitude of inequalities and drivers for reducing gender-related health inequalities is crucial in developing countries. This is particularly the case for Liberia with its very high level of gender-related inequalities in health and health outcomes. Objective: This paper assesses the magnitude of gender health inequalities and the relative contribution of different factors to health inequality in Liberia. Methods: Data came from the Liberian Household Income Expenditure Survey 2014. A two stage sampling methodology was used and 4,104 households were randomly selected and interviewed. The main variable of interest is dichotomised, good versus poor self-assessed health. Gender-related health inequality is assessed using the Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition for non-linear models. The decomposition reveals the magnitude of inequality and contributions of different factors. Results: We found large gender disparities (0.054, p < 0.01) characterised by women disadvantages in health status. In addition, the gender health disparities are mostly pronounced in rural areas. About 54% of the gender inequalities in health status were explained by the differences in endowments. Equalizing access to information, wealth and utilization of mosquito nets would reduce the gender gaps by 44, 5 and 4%, respectively. Conclusions: Addressing gender health inequalities inter alia requires access to health information (i.e. electronic and print media), gender responsive interventions that improve wealth in key sectors (i.e. education, employment, social protection, housing, and other appropriate infrastructure). In addition, the government, private sector and civil society should ensure that the health sector provides access to quality mosquito nets and improved health services including preventive care in order to reduce disease burden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The literature shows how gender mandates contribute to differences in exposure and vulnerability to certain health risk factors. This paper presents the results of a study developed in the south of Spain, where research aimed at understanding men from a gender perspective is still limited. Objective: The aim of this paper is to explore the lay perceptions and meanings ascribed to the idea of masculinity, identifying ways in which gender displays are related to health. Design: The study is based on a mixed-methods data collection strategy typical of qualitative research. We performed a qualitative content analysis focused on manifest and latent content. Results: Our analysis showed that the relationship between masculinity and health was mainly defined with regard to behavioural explanations with an evident performative meaning. With regard to issues such as driving, the use of recreational drugs, aggressive behaviour, sexuality, and body image, important connections were established between manhood acts and health outcomes. Different ways of understanding and performing the male identity also emerged from the results. The findings revealed the implications of these aspects in the processes of change in the identity codes of men and women. Conclusions: The study provides insights into how the category 'man' is highly dependent on collective practices and performative acts. Consideration of how males perform manhood acts might be required in guidance on the development of programmes and policies aimed at addressing gender inequalities in health in a particular local context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The importance of tackling economic, social and health-related inequities is increasingly accepted as a core concern for the post-Millennium Development Goal framework. However, there is a global dearth of high-quality, policy-relevant and actionable data on inequities within populations, which means that development solutions seldom focus on the people who need them most. INTREC (INDEPTH Training and Research Centres of Excellence) was established with this concern in mind. It aims to provide training for researchers from the INDEPTH network on associations between health inequities, the social determinants of health (SDH), and health outcomes, and on presenting their findings in a usable form to policy makers. Objective: As part of a baseline situation analysis for INTREC, this paper assesses the current status of SDH training in three of the African INTREC countries - Ghana, Tanzania, and South Africa - as well as the gaps, barriers, and opportunities for training. Methods: SDH-related courses from the three countries were identified through personal knowledge of the researchers, supplemented by snowballing and online searches. Interviews were also conducted with, among others, academics engaged in SDH and public health training in order to provide context and complementary material. Information regarding access to the Internet, as a possible INTREC teaching medium, was gathered in each country through online searches. Results: SDH-relevant training is available, but 1) the number of places available for students is limited; 2) the training tends to be public-health-oriented rather than inclusive of the broader, multi-sectoral issues associated with SDH; and 3) insufficient funding places limitations on both students and on the training institutions themselves, thereby affecting participation and quality. We also identified rapidly expanding Internet connectivity in all three countries, which opens up opportunities for e-learning on SDH, though the current quality of the Internet services remains mixed. Conclusions: SDH training is currently in short supply, and there is a clear role for INTREC to contribute to the training of a critical mass of African researchers on the topic. This work will be accomplished most effectively by building on pre-existing networks, institutions, and methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: While there is accumulated evidence showing the rapid rise of the burden caused by non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in Vietnam, information on the extent to which households in the country suffer financial catastrophe or impoverishment caused by the diseases is still largely lacking. This paper aims to examine the self-reported prevalence of major chronic diseases among a population in rural Vietnam and to analyse the household financial burden associated with these diseases. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of 800 randomly selected households was carried out in Vo Nhai District, Thai Nguyen Province, in 2010. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with key informants of selected households on diagnosed chronic NCDs, health care utilization and health expenditure of all household members. The World Health Organization's definitions of catastrophic expenditure and impoverishment were used. Both descriptive and analytical statistics were applied. Results: The prevalence of chronic NCDs in households and individuals was 29.3 and 33.4%, respectively. The catastrophic health expenditure and impoverishment rates among the households who have at least one member with a chronic disease were 14.6 and 7.6%, respectively. These rates were significantly higher than the corresponding figures among the households whose members were free from the diseases (4.2 and 2.3%, respectively). The odds of experiencing catastrophic health expenditure and impoverishment among the household with NCD patients were 3.2 and 2.3 times greater than that of other households. Conclusion: Findings from this study indicate that the epidemiological and household financial burdens caused by chronic diseases in Vietnam are now substantial and need immediate mitigation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a review of the PhD thesis undertaken by Joanna Vearey that explores local government responses to the urban health challenges of migration, informal settlements, and HIV in Johannesburg, South Africa. Urbanisation in South Africa is a result of natural urban growth and (to a lesser extent) in-migration from within the country and across borders. This has led to the development of informal settlements within and on the periphery of urban areas. The highest HIV prevalence nationally is found within urban informal settlements. South African local government has a 'developmental mandate' that calls for government to work with citizens to develop sustainable interventions to address their social, economic, and material needs. Through a mixed-methods approach, four studies were undertaken within inner-city Johannesburg and a peripheral urban informal settlement. Two cross-sectional surveys -- one at a household level and one with migrant antiretroviral clients -- were supplemented with semi-structured interviews with multiple stakeholders involved with urban health and HIV in Johannesburg, and participatory photography and film projects undertaken with urban migrant communities. The findings show that local government requires support in developing and implementing appropriate intersectoral responses to address urban health. Existing urban health frameworks do not deal adequately with the complex health and development challenges identified; it is essential that urban public health practitioners and other development professionals in South Africa engage with the complexities of the urban environment. A revised, participatory approach to urban health -- 'concept mapping' -- is suggested which requires a recommitment to intersectoral action, 'healthy urban governance' and public health advocacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public health research has gained increasing importance in India's national health policy as the country seeks to address the high burden of disease and its inequitable distribution, and embarks on an ambitious agenda towards universalising health care. This study aimed at describing the public health research output in India, its focus and distribution, and the actors involved in the research system. It makes recommendations for systematically promoting and strengthening public health research in the country. The study was a bibliometric analysis of PubMed and IndMed databases for years 2000–2010. The bibliometric data were analysed in terms of biomedical focus based on the Global Burden of Disease, location of research, research institutions, and funding agencies. A total of 7,893 eligible articles were identified over the 11-year search period. The annual research output increased by 42% between 2000 and 2010. In total, 60.8% of the articles were related to communicable diseases, newborn, maternal, and nutritional causes, comparing favourably with the burden of these causes (39.1%). While the burdens from non-communicable diseases and injuries were 50.2 and 10.7%, respectively, only 31.9 and 7.5% of articles reported research for these conditions. The north-eastern states and the Empowered-Action-Group states of India were the most under-represented for location of research. In total, 67.2% of papers involved international collaborations and 49.2% of these collaborations were with institutions in the UK or USA; 35.4% of the publications involved international funding and 71.2% of funders were located in the UK or USA. While public health research output in India has increased significantly, there are marked inequities in relation to the burden of disease and the geographic distribution of research. Systematic priority setting, adequate funding, and institutional capacity building are needed to address these inequities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Since the publication of the reports by the Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH), many research papers have documented inequities, explaining causal pathways in order to inform policy and programmatic decision-making. At the international level, the sustainable development goals (SDGs) reflect an attempt to bring together these themes and the complexities involved in defining a comprehensive development framework. However, to date, much less has been done to address the monitoring challenges, that is, how data generation, analysis and use are to become routine tasks. Objective: To test proposed indicators of social determinants of health (SDH), gender, equity, and human rights with respect to their relevance in tracking progress in universal health coverage and population health (level and distribution). Design: In an attempt to explore these monitoring challenges, indicators covering a wide range of social determinants were tested in four country case studies (Bangladesh, Brazil, South Africa, and Vietnam) for their technical feasibility, reliability, and validity, and their communicability and usefulness to policy-makers. Twelve thematic domains with 20 core indicators covering different aspects of equity, human rights, gender, and SDH were tested through a review of data sources, descriptive analyses, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. To test the communicability and usefulness of the domains, domain narratives that explained the causal pathways were presented to policy-makers, managers, the media, and civil society leaders. Results: For most countries, monitoring is possible, as some data were available for most of the core indicators. However, a qualitative assessment showed that technical feasibility, reliability, and validity varied across indicators and countries. Producing understandable and useful information proved challenging, and particularly so in translating indicator definitions and data into meaningful lay and managerial narratives, and effectively communicating links to health and ways in which the information could improve decision-making. Conclusions: This exercise revealed that for monitoring to produce reliable data collection, analysis, and discourse, it will need to be adapted to each national context and institutionalised into national systems. This will require that capacities and resources for this and subsequent communication of results are increased across countries for both national and international monitoring, including the successful implementation of the SDGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) have gradually become important and regular components of the policy-making process in Mexico since, and even before, the World Health Organization (WHO) Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH) called for interventions and policies aimed at tackling the social determinants of health (SDH). This paper presents two case studies to show how public policies addressing the SDH have been monitored and evaluated in Mexico using reliable, valid, and complete information, which is not regularly available. Prospera, for example, evaluated programs seeking to improve the living conditions of families in extreme poverty in terms of direct effects on health, nutrition, education and income. Monitoring of Prospera's implementation has also helped policy-makers identify windows of opportunity to improve the design and operation of the program. Seguro Popular has monitored the reduction of health inequalities and inequities evaluated the positive effects of providing financial protection to its target population. Useful and sound evidence of the impact of programs such as Progresa and Seguro Popular plus legal mandates, and a regulatory evaluation agency, the National Council for Social Development Policy Evaluation, have been fundamental to institutionalizing M&E in Mexico. The Mexican experience may provide useful lessons for other countries facing the challenge of institutionalizing the M&E of public policy processes to assess the effects of SDH as recommended by the WHO CSDH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction to the journal is presented that focuses on the scope of indicators required in national monitoring systems if they are to address the determinants of health equity and how related analyses would be seen by policymakers.

Background: The perception within literature and populace is that the private for-profit sector is for the rich only, and this characteristic results in behaviours that hinder advancement of Universal health coverage (UHC) goals. The context of Northern Uganda presents an opportunity for understanding how the private sector continues to thrive in settings with high poverty levels and history of conflict. Objective: The study aimed at understanding access mechanisms employed by the formal private for-profit providers (FPFPs) to enable pro-poor access to health services in post conflict Northern Uganda. Methods: Data collection was conducted in Gulu municipality in 2015 using Organisational survey of 45 registered formal private for-profit providers (FPFPs),10 life histories, and 13 key informant interviews. Descriptive statistics were generated for the quantitative findings whereas qualitative findings were analysed thematically. Results: FPFPs pragmatically employed various access mechanisms and these included fee exemptions and provision of free services, fee reductions, use of loan books, breaking down doses and partial payments. Most mechanisms were preceded by managers' subjective identification of the poor, while operationalisation heavily depended on the managers' availability and trust between the provider and the customer. For a few FPFPs, partnerships with Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government enabled provision of free, albeit mainly preventive services, including immunisation, consultations, screening for blood pressure and family planning. Challenges such as quality issues, information asymmetry and standardisation of charges arose during implementation of the mechanisms. Conclusion: The identification of the poor by the FPFPs was subjective and unsystematic. FPFPs implemented various innovations to ensure pro-poor access to health services. However, they face a continuous dilemma of balancing the profit maximization and altruism objectives. Implementation of some pro-poor mechanisms raises concerns included those related to quality and standardisation of pricing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Women experience poorer health than men despite their longer life expectancy, due to a higher prevalence of non-fatal chronic illnesses. This paper aims to explore whether the unequal gender distribution of roles and resources can account for inequalities in general self-rated health (SRH) by gender, across social classes, in a Southern European population. Methods: Cross-sectional study of residents in Catalonia aged 25-64, using data from the 2006 population living conditions survey (n=5,817). Poisson regression models were used to calculate the fair/poor SRH prevalence ratio (PR) by gender and to estimate the contribution of variables assessing several dimensions of living conditions as the reduction in the PR after their inclusion in the model. Analyses were stratified by social class (non-manual and manual). Results: SRH was poorer for women among both non-manual (PR 1.39, 95% CI 1.09-1.76) and manual social classes (PR 1.36, 95% CI 1.20-1.56). Adjustment for individual income alone eliminated the association between sex and SRH, especially among manual classes (PR 1.01, 95% CI 0.85-1.19; among non-manual 1.19, 0.92-1.54). The association was also reduced when adjusting by employment conditions among manual classes, and household material and economic situation, time in household chores and residential environment among non-manual classes. Discussion: Gender inequalities in individual income appear to contribute largely to women's poorer health. Individual income may indicate the availability of economic resources, but also the history of access to the labour market and potentially the degree of independence and power within the household. Policies to facilitate women's labour market participation, to close the gender pay gap, or to raise non-contributory pensions may be helpful to improve women's health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global health ethics is a relatively new term that is used to conceptualize the process of applying moral value to health issues that are typically characterized by a global level effect or require action coordinated at a global level. It is important to acknowledge that this account of global health ethics takes a predominantly geographic approach and may infer that the subject relates primarily to macro-level health phenomena. However, global health ethics could alternatively be thought of as another branch of health ethics. It may then relate to specific topics in themselves, which might also include micro-level health phenomena. In its broadest sense, global health ethics is a normative project that is best characterized by the challenge of developing common values and universal norms for responding to global health threats. Consequently, many subjects fall within its scope. Whilst several accounts of global health ethics have been conceptualized in the literature, a concise demarcation of the paradigm is still needed. Through means of a literature review, this paper presents a two-part introduction to global health ethics. First, the framework of 'borrowed' ethics that currently form the core of global health ethics is discussed in relation to two essential ethical considerations: 1) what is the moral significance of health and 2) what is the moral significance of boundaries? Second, a selection of exemplar ethical topics is presented to illustrate the range of topics within global health ethics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) violates women's human rights and is a serious public health concern. Historically strategies to prevent IPV have focussed on individuals and their relationships without addressing the context under which IPV occurs. Primary prevention of IPV is a relatively new focus of international efforts and what SASA!, a phased community mobilisation intervention, seeks to achieve. Methods: Conducted in Kampala, Uganda, between 2007 and 2012, the SASA! Study is a cluster randomised controlled trial to assess the community-level impact of SASA! This nested qualitative study explores pathways of individual- and community-level change as a result of SASA! Forty in-depth interviews with community members (20 women, 20 men) were conducted at follow-up, audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis complemented by constant comparative methods. Results: SASA! influenced the dynamics of relationships and broader community norms. At the relationship level, SASA! is helping partners to explore the benefits of mutually supportive gender roles; improve communication on a variety of issues; increase levels of joint decision-making and highlight non-violent ways to deal with anger or disagreement. Not all relationships experienced the same breadth and depth of change. At the community level, SASA! has helped foster a climate of non-tolerance of violence by reducing the acceptability of violence against women and increasing individuals' skills, willingness, and sense of responsibility to act to prevent it. It has also developed and strengthened community-based structures to catalyse and support on-going activism to prevent IPV. Discussion: This paper provides evidence of the ways in which community-based violence prevention interventions may reduce IPV in low-income settings. It offers important implications for community mobilisation approaches and for prevention of IPV against women. This research has demonstrated the potential of social norm change interventions at the community level to achieve meaningful impact within project timeframes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Women experience poorer health than men despite their longer life expectancy, due to a higher prevalence of non-fatal chronic illnesses. This paper aims to explore whether the unequal gender distribution of roles and resources can account for inequalities in general self-rated health (SRH) by gender, across social classes, in a Southern European population. Methods: Cross-sectional study of residents in Catalonia aged 25-64, using data from the 2006 population living conditions survey (n = 5,817). Poisson regression models were used to calculate the fair/poor SRH prevalence ratio (PR) by gender and to estimate the contribution of variables assessing several dimensions of living conditions as the reduction in the PR after their inclusion in the model. Analyses were stratified by social class (non-manual and manual). Results: SRH was poorer for women among both non-manual (PR 1.39, 95% CI 1.09-1.76) and manual social classes (PR 1.36, 95% CI 1.20-1.56). Adjustment for individual income alone eliminated the association between sex and SRH, especially among manual classes (PR 1.01, 95% CI 0.85-1.19; among nonmanual 1.19, 0.92-1.54). The association was also reduced when adjusting by employment conditions among manual classes, and household material and economic situation, time in household chores and residential environment among non-manual classes. Discussion: Gender inequalities in individual income appear to contribute largely to women's poorer health. Individual income may indicate the availability of economic resources, but also the history of access to the labour market and potentially the degree of independence and power within the household. Policies to facilitate women's labour market participation, to close the gender pay gap, or to raise non-contributory pensions may be helpful to improve women's health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 5 is focused on reducing maternal mortality and achieving universal access to reproductive health care. India has made extensive efforts to achieve MDG 5 and in some regions much progress has been achieved. Progress has been uneven and inequitable however, and many women still lack access to maternal and reproductive health care. Objective: In this review, a framework developed by the Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH) is used to categorize and explain determinants of inequity in maternal and reproductive health in India. Design: A review of peer-reviewed, published literature was conducted using the electronic databases PubMed and Popline. The search was performed using a carefully developed list of search terms designed to capture published papers from India on: 1) maternal and reproductive health, and 2) equity, including disadvantaged populations. A matrix was developed to sort the relevant information, which was extracted and categorized based on the CSDH framework. In this way, the main sources of inequity in maternal and reproductive health in India and their inter-relationships were determined. Results: Five main structural determinants emerged from the analysis as important in understanding equity in India: economic status, gender, education, social status (registered caste or tribe), and age (adolescents). These five determinants were found to be closely interrelated, a feature which was reflected in the literature. Conclusion: In India, economic status, gender, and social status are all closely interrelated when influencing use of and access to maternal and reproductive health care. Appropriate attention should be given to how these social determinants interplay in generating and sustaining inequity when designing policies and programs to reach equitable progress toward improved maternal and reproductive health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]