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The era of Asia has been felt in foreign language education in Japan, with more and more youth reportedly opting to study Chinese and Korean as the second foreign language. The shift in popularity, from European to Asian languages, not only reflects the societal demand for the institutional rearrangement of academic staff but also stirs teachers of European languages to appeal for the continued study of their language. The present discussion paper, drawing from secondary statistics and scholarly knowledge, first reviews a series of Japan's foreign language education policies from the 1990s to 2012 that have been affecting the organizational structure of foreign language education in Japanese higher education. The study then addresses an array of issues that emerge with the changing needs of the times: the waning popularity of European languages, the Japanese government's policy shift to English and Chinese, English language professionals' detached attitudes toward other language education, and the dominance of university language teachers with little to no language teaching training. By addressing these pending yet gravely overlooked issues that merit due attention from language teaching professionals beyond Japan, the present study hopes to provide insight into the traditionally one-sided, English-centric discussion on foreign language education in Japanese higher education in a matter that is informative for international scholarship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper scrutinises organisational change in Japanese and UK universities which are engaged in entrepreneurial activities. The study focuses on recent changes in governance, management, leadership, and funding in these universities. The paper argues there are convergent trends between Japanese and UK universities in terms of increasing entrepreneurial activities, a review of institutional strategies, a review of the organisation, the application of market-oriented institutional policy, links with the industrial sector, the notion of a public financial crisis and changing external environment, strong leadership of the university President or Vice-Chancellor, and the notion of the accountability of the university to society as a whole. However, the application of particular institutional strategies, entrepreneurial culture, and the way in which an institution relates itself to the private sector significantly differs among institutions. The paper suggests that those differences are related to different institutional history and characteristics – including those between national and private universities in Japan, and old and new universities in the UK – as well as different government policies between Japan and the UK. The paper first proposes a theoretical model for the five types of entrepreneurial culture of the institutions. It then examines the model by using case studies: Nottingham Trent University (UK), University of Surrey (UK), University of Tokyo (Japan), and Waseda University (Japan). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the process and meaning of problem-based learning (PBL) that students may experience. The Project Cycle Management method was taught and utilised as an instrument of PBL at a Japanese women's college over a period of 5 years. The study closely examined what and how students learned in PBL from the perspectives of cognitive, social, and internal aspects. Despite the relative ignorance about the internal aspect of learners in previous research, the results of the study revealed that the internal aspect is inseparably linked with the other two aspects, and the three of them simultaneously undergo their own changes in the PBL process. That is, meaningful learning experiences seem to be no less importantly affected by the feelings or internal aspect of learners than by cognitive and social counterparts. Then, beyond knowledge building and skill acquirement, PBL may have contributed to broadening learners' perspectives and promoting their personal development. In this regard, PBL can be defined anew, from an angle different from that of previous research, as learning that can generate rich and varied emotions in learners concurrently as they face problems, enable them to acquire subject matter knowledge and relational skills through dialogue, and eventually guide them to the threshold of personal transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims at investigating Japanese government’s subsidy policy for private universities by applying statistical approaches to various types of quantitative data. Firstly, we briefly describe the history of the government subsidy policy to identify the dominant factors behind it and also explain the structure and mechanism of this subsidy. Secondly, by using 2005 data, we try to find influential factors in allocating both general subsidies and special subsidies for private universities. Thirdly, using the data in two periods given as 1975–1979 and 2000–2004, we try to elucidate the structural properties of the subsidy policy by applying correlative rank analyses approaches in order to measure the “dominance power” of the top-ranking subsidy-recipient schools. The results show that the number of faculty members is the most influential for general subsidies, while the number of students is the most dominant variable for special subsidies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japanese education has been a focus of comparative studies for the past 20 years. Many scholars have attributed the economic success of this industrialized society to a highly literate and well-educated population. Recent studies, however, have tended to be more critical of, in particular, Japanese higher education (HE). Indeed, most universities in Japan are acutely aware of the need for change and a considerable effort at institutional reform is sweeping the nation. Unfortunately most of the constructive criticism of Japanese HE has not yet been published in English. One of the most vocal of the reformists, Professor Ikuo Amano, has published widely on various aspects of HE in Japan. The following paper is a translation of a chapter in his book Challenges to Japanese Universities. This translation is prefaced by both a synopsis of this book as well as a brief introduction to Amano and his work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of different parties in Japan have been discussing higher educational reform for over thirty years. Many of these ideas finally started to take form in the 1990s as the Ministry of Education's University Council began implementing many of the propositions that had been put forth during the deliberations of the 1970s and 1980s. As Japan enters the 21st century, its 18-year-old population has decreased by over half a million since 1992. It will decrease another 300,000 by the year 2010. This has added an increased urgency to make reforms, especially at third-tier universities, which are now starting to have trouble recruiting students. Japan's Ministry of Education would also like to bring the quality of its university educational standards up to par with the rest of the advanced nations. Moreover, industry is demanding a new breed of employee – and one much different than the Japanese educational system has been known to produce. Finally, a new generation of Japanese is starting to reach adulthood, who – raised on consumerism, and material abundance – have a completely different value system than their parents' generation. This paper looks at the present higher education reform movement and its history extending back approximately thirty years. It then goes on to offer some suggestions as to what more can be done to alleviate many problems still inherent in the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses why the highly developed Japanese system of school and undergraduate education seems inversely proportional to student numbers proceeding to graduate education. Only a few do proceed. Traditional attitudes, which are not supportive of graduate education, are shown to stem from the view generally taken by the world of business and industry that graduate education is not of significance when recruiting staff. A distinction is, however, drawn between the humanities (in which graduate education is seen as appropriate only for those planning an academic career) and more recent developments in the fields of engineering and the natural sciences indicating a growing recognition of the value of post-graduate training. The work of the government University Chartering Commission – the body which authorises the establishment of graduate schools, is described – focusing on its measure to maintain the quality of graduate education. The author shows that university-based doctoral students may be at a disadvantage in terms of job-prospects, financial provision and laboratory-funding in comparison with industry-based students. The paper concludes by reviewing recent innovations aimed at tackling the problems described. Programs of continuing and professional education have been established with part-time attendance or a mixture of full-time (sometimes on leave from the company) and part-time attendance as well as specially designed inter-disciplinary programs with a focus on applied areas such as development in developing countries. The government is promoting refresher programs and cooperation between universities and business enterprises including joint research projects involving company-based engineers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The entry examination for admission to high schools and universities in Japan is a crucial element in the screening process, especially in the case of the more prestigious institutions. This paper examines why competitive entrance examinations are such an important feature of the system, analyses their impact on the development of social character and then discusses to what extent this social character interacts with that of the typical Japanese white collar worker, the one perpetuating the other. Credentialism alone is not a sufficient explanation of the Japanese phenomenon since there is no overall shortage of places. The outstanding feature of the system is that applicants aim at institutions one rank higher than one they are confident of entering. This is illustrated with a study of data from high schools in the Kansai District. The whole process can be described as one of successive contests in which, as in a tournament, the prize (admission to a leading university) goes only to those who win in every round of the competition. This in turn leads to the prize of employment by a major company since mostly these recruit on the basis of the university of origin rather than the particular specialisation. The paper concludes by suggesting that the process described constitutes a hidden agenda for the production of conformists unlikely to challenge the ethos of the institution or organisation. There are, however, signs that smaller companies have become more important in recruitment as the major companies have reduced their intakes. Smaller companies cannot afford lengthy in-house training and are becoming more concerned with applicants‘ competences than with their universities of origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Japanese system of university administration is described in terms of the legal framework and the powers of the founding bodies which can be the state (in the case of ’national‘ universities), local bodies (in the case of ’local‘ public universities) or private corporations in the case of ’private‘ universities. The tradition of autonomy and academic freedom is discussed in its historical context and the strong emphasis on the power possessed by individual faculties is explained. The modifications brought about by post-war reforms are described and attention drawn to the quadrupling in the number of universities and the development of a more open and less elitist ethos. These adjustments are shown to have particular significance for the ’private‘ universities which are now responsible for about 75% of the total provision. The period of campus strife in the late 1960s brought university reform to the top of the agenda and the paper analyses government initiatives designed to encourage universities to embark upon self-initiated reform; notable amongst these initiatives were the foundation of the government-sponsored University of Tsukuba with its new administrative style and the increased ministerial regulatory power which followed on the introduction of national subsidies to ’private‘ universities. After commenting upon further developments in the university reform movement, the paper draws attention to the challenge facing universities as they are encouraged to use their autonomy, in an admittedly worsening financial environment, to develop, in consultation with other sectors of society, an effective response by the universities to Japanese aspirations for the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents recent reform processes in Japanese higher education, concerning the tensions emerging within the system regarding ‘excellence’ and ‘diversity’. The article particularly focuses on how Japanese universities have reacted to the recent ‘competition’ and ‘differentiation’ policy promoted by the government, drawing on recent survey results conducted with academic managers at Japanese universities. It is interesting to examine the case of Japan, a historically diversified and differentiated national system, which has been changing rapidly with recent national ‘top-down’ policy reforms, followed by more recent and new bottom-up institutional initiatives. The study shows that universities are trying to achieve excellence, fulfilling different functions at the same time, aspiring to be excellent in teaching, research and social contribution without having institutional capacity to meet these expectations. Appropriate internal governance and external mediation mechanisms need to be created at the institutional level to manage diversification of the higher education system as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Japanese response to its recognition that the country‘s economic achievements implied that it should increase its interaction with the world-wide community is analysed with particular reference to developments in the 1980‘s and early 1990‘s. Attention is particularly drawn to the significant part played by Japanese government initiatives aimed at increasing the number of foreign students coming to Japan to study and at facilitating the employment of foreign nationals as members of faculty in Japanese universities. Curricular developments within Japanese universities including undergraduate programs with an international flavour intended for Japanese students and the development of several graduate schools with a focus on international development are detailed. Programs on Japanese language and culture, some aimed at Junior Year Abroad students mainly from the USA, are noted as well as the steps taken to smooth the path of foreign researchers seeking to complete doctoral studies in Japan. Inter-governmental and inter-university agreements are described including projects aimed at training scientists and other specialists from developing countries which include training in Japanese institutions. The paper identifies a complementary movement by foreign institutions, mainly in the USA (prompted in part by awareness of Japan‘s mounting trade surplus with the USA) to establish branches in Japan; it is shown that such developments were encouraged by Japanese municipalities, especially those anxious to re-vitalize their communities. The conclusion reviews the whole development and adds a note on problems which may lie ahead in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing from social identity theory and its categorization process, the present study crossexamines Japanese students’ contrastively different attitudes toward Asians and European (-looking) people in two different contexts: (1) Japanese students in the overseas English language school context who perceive a sense of solidarity with other Asian, particularly Korean, students in the presence of European students and (2) Japanese students’ yearning for ‘white English’ speakers in Japan and their disregard for Asian and African-looking students on campus. Based on primary data and literature knowledge base, the present study argues that Japanese students’ inclination to make friends with other Asian friends in English speaking countries is context-bound and once they return to their less multicultural home country, their intact yearning for the Imagined West is rekindled. Further discussions are provided for those involved in international education and foreign language education as well as English-as-a-world-language education in postsecondary education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing pace and scope of global structural change has left Japanese flagship universities at a crossroads. Reflecting upon historical trends, current policy changes and respective institutional strategies for global marketing among Japanese top research universities, the author discusses possible future directions for these institutions and how key decisions may be influenced by selected national policies. By taking a more active role in building flagship universities and making use of higher education for social and economic development, the Japanese government has already taken concrete measures to keep apace with higher education policies of neighboring Asian countries. However, in the author’s view, whether or not Japan can truly develop and maintain world-class universities ultimately depends on an overall improvement in the status of East Asian higher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the major issues and character of internationalization of curricula in higher education institutions in recent years in three non-English-speaking countries – China, Japan and The Netherlands. By making a comparative analysis of curricula provided for international students and curricula with international subjects, perspectives or approach offered in both English and the local language, the author examines development and character of internationalized curricula in the three countries, describes the similarities and different aspects of how the three countries internationalized their university curricula and met the needs of different regions and social, economic and higher education systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay examines how Japanese research universities have changed from an organizational perspective over the past ten years. First, Japan has modified graduate education to better compete with other countries. The traditional undergraduate school-centered system has been changed to include a focus on graduate education. Since graduate schools are more sensitive to changes in and generation of new knowledge, this new focus affects various areas of universities, including the status of professors. Second, universities have become loosely coupled systems as a result of recent reforms, such as introducing a ``large'' chair system and the separation of teaching and research. This new organizational structure makes universities more flexible and more receptive to further reforms. Finally, the loosely coupled structure of Japanese universities requires the creation and standardization of university culture. The introduction of new vice-president positions will contribute to the formation of university identity rather than strengthen of governance systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the development of the quality assurance system and changes in market forces in higher education in Japan. First, the article focuses on the function and impact of self-monitoring and self-evaluation systems as unique processes oriented towards decentralization and internal reflection. Second, the changes in market forces in higher education during rapid economic globalization are discussed. Third, the possibility of external evaluation by the National Institution for Academic Degrees is introduced as a bureaucratic approach to show accountability in the national university system. Finally, the relationship between the changes in the quality assurance system and the changes in market forces is addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japanese universities have been tightly controlled by the Ministry of Education and it has often been pointed out that their autonomy has been ambiguous. In the late 1990s, however, the Japanese government started the debate about introducing an Independent Administrative Institution system in order to deregulate its authority and to make the relationship between the government and national universities clear. If this system were actually introduced, universities in Japan would not only enjoy a great amount of autonomy, but would also face financial problems. The reality is unclear so far, but some national universities have already started to reform themselves radically in preparation for the introduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the characteristics in Japan's system of higher education is its large private higher education sector. However, recent financing reforms have targeted mainly national universities since the largest proportion of government support to higher education goes to these institutions. Recent reforms have been changing the structure and nature of national university finance. These changes were also influenced by a large private sector. Private universities also compete with national universities in order to increase financial resources. Therefore, there is a need to reconsider resource allocation and the distribution of functions among whole universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]