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Many institutions, including governments, universities and corporations are confronting their involvement in slavery and racial discrimination and grappling with the issue of reparations. But what ...

In 2016, Colin Kaepernick, a Black NFL quarterback, began sitting and kneeling during the Star-Spangled Banner to protest oppression against people of color in the United States. Instead of...

To mark the 20-year anniversary of the end of federal court-ordered desegregation in Denver Public Schools (DPS), the Front Porch newspaper gathered leaders in Denver's educational communit...

This study experimentally tested whether participants held and/or applied stereotypes of baseball players. Participants were asked to rate White, Black, and Latino baseball players based on stereotypes consistently identified in previous literature. Participants saw a photo of a player and an anonymous paragraph from a newspaper that highlighted a particular stereotype. They were then asked to rate the author's credibility. Black players were rated as higher in physical strength and natural ability, consistent with previous literature concerning how athletes were described. However, White and Latin players were not stereotyped. But participants rated White-consistent descriptions as credible and Latin-consistent descriptions as less credible. These results are interpreted through the prism of social identity theory.

This study explores how Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr., were portrayed in the New York Times, Washington Post, and Boston Globe. Drawing on concepts of hegemony and racism, a textual analysis was conducted to examine coverage of each man. Through this framing, Malcolm X was labeled as a deviant while Martin Luther King, Jr., was embraced as a righteous leader. These characterizations reinforced hegemonic power structures while challenging the established “protest paradigm.”

Previous studies have examined the experiences of either women or minority journalists to determine whether newsroom diversity makes a difference in news content, concluding that the gender and race of newsworkers does not substantially alter the news. However, they have not looked at the work practices and experiences of African American women journalists to determine whether their newswork challenges or reinforces dominant journalistic constructions concerning race and gender. Drawing on the cultural studies model of encoding/decoding, as well as the concept of intersectionality and standpoint theory, this study asks whether the social location of journalists as African Americans and women affects their work practices in ways that increase racial and gender diversity in the news, challenge stereotypes, and otherwise resist normative news constructions of race and gender. Interviews were conducted with 10 African American female TV and newspaper journalists in a major metropolitan area with a majority Bl...

In 2006, millions of immigrants protested in cities around the United States against H.R. 4437, a new bill in Congress that threatened to criminalize undocumented immigrants and strengthen border enforcement. For this study, I interviewed immigration editors and reporters at California newspapers about the discourse surrounding this bill to determine the presence and/or prevalence of geo-ethnic storytelling, which posits that racial and geographic location of a particular subject community creates a unique network for the way journalists tell and understand stories. This study suggests that although reporters and editors acknowledge the importance of their own sense of race and community in creating reports, the journalistic norms of fairness and objectivity were more influential than geo-ethnic storytelling, suggesting the resilience of news routines and values despite changes in the field and an issue couched in race.

With reader comments posted to newspaper websites seemingly becoming increasingly vitriolic, newspapers across the country are weighing the pros and cons of allowing readers to post anonymous comments online. Using a content analysis of online reader comments from a random sample of U.S. newspapers, this study explores how readers discuss race in online newspaper forums, and provides insight for editors struggling to meet the objectives of the Kerner Commission. Results show that reader comments included racial terms, even when the article did not. Further, when reader comments mentioned race, they tended to be negative, reiterating stereotypes. Latinos were mentioned more often than other races/ethnicities in the comments, and comments that mentioned Latinos also were likelier to be negative. Beyond eliminating anonymous commenting, this study suggests newspapers should reconsider “color-blind” policies that ignore race and make a concerted effort to publish more articles that tackle race-related issues.

Advertising directed toward U.S. Latinos can be traced back to 1808 and has been integral to a Spanish-language media industry that has evolved significantly over the past two centuries. In this study, the author investigates how Latinos were discursively constructed as “consumer-citizens” by advertisers in the early Spanish-language press. Thus, advertising is seen as a site of ideological negotiation, hailing Latinos as participants within an evolving marketplace but also as members of a social system that distinguishes ethnic identity from national identity. An analysis of 685 print advertisements from two Los Angeles-based publications: El Clamor Publico in 1855 and La Opinion in 1926 reveals that Anglo businesses invested economic resources toward reaching Spanish-speaking consumers as early as the first issue of the region's first Latino newspaper. This finding challenges claims that Latinos were excluded from the formal economy and that the early Spanish-language press was primarily a space for pro...

Throughout the late 1960s and 1970s, the Black Panther Party offered an alternative discourse to the Civil Rights Movement, primarily using Black power rhetoric, Black nationalism and internationalism, and Marxist-Leninist revolutionary politics. This article provides a historical analysis of the Party's international news coverage, published between 1967 and 1970, in its newspaper The Black Panther Black Community News Service. Although previous literature has largely analyzed the Party's use of print media, less work has analyzed how the Party's newspaper became a tool for internationalizing the U.S. Black Power Movement (BPM), immediately following the launching of The Black Panther. An analysis of the newspapers’ first 3 years of publication locates the 1960s BPM within a global movement focusing on both race and class struggle. Although there is little evidence that suggests the newspaper had a significant effect on fostering an international BPM, its existence is important. This article shows how th...

Previous literature has established the widespread use of frames that contrast athletes’ physical (i.e., the “brawn” frame, often used for Black athletes) and mental abilities (i.e., the “brain” frame, often used for White athletes) in mediated sports content, particularly oral commentary, which tends to be more spontaneous in nature. The current study analyzed the presence and salience of brawn and brain frames of Heisman finalists in newspaper articles as a function of reporter race; extending previous research by examining (a) written content and (b) reporter race as an antecedent condition. Results confirm the existence of “brawn” and “brain” biases in written sports content, with no influence of reporter race on these patterns. The lack of influence of reporter race—a finding that contradicts research on oral commentary—suggests an institutional influence on frame use in written sports coverage as a function of the more planned nature of “print” media.

Ethnic newspapers seek to provide local news not provided by other media, yet few studies have compared local health news in ethnic versus mainstream newspapers. Local health news in ethnic newspapers could decrease health disparities among ethnic communities who are at higher risk for certain chronic illnesses and diseases. Localized story elements could inform ethnic audiences and broaden the discussion about local health issues, shedding light on priorities of ethnic media in providing relevant health information to their communities. This research compares local health news in ethnic (Black/Hispanic) versus mainstream (large/daily) newspapers and examines 3 localized story elements: local sources, localized statistics, and localized information. Results from the content analysis showed no differences in localized health news coverage for ethnic versus mainstream newspapers except the number of local health news stories and health stories with localized health information were higher in Hispanic and lo...

The current study experimentally tested stereotypes and credibility of messages associated with athletes. Participants were asked to rate photos of Black and White baseball players based on stereotypes identified in previous literature. They were then given an anonymous paragraph from a newspaper that featured either a stereotype consistent or inconsistent message and asked to rate the author’s credibility. Black players were rated significantly higher in physical strength and natural ability, which is consistent with previous literature. However, inconsistent with previous literature, White players were not rated significantly higher in intelligence and leadership. Despite these results, when measuring credibility, this study found White-consistent stereotypes to be credible, whereas Black-consistent ones were not. These results are interpreted in light of Devine’s model of stereotype processing and in-group, out-group bias.

The authors explored whether differences exist in the volume of health news coverage in English- and Spanish-language newspapers in the United States, as well as differences in the main topics discussed and the way the issue was framed. A sample of 239 news articles was selected from English- and Spanish-language newspapers in Miami, Florida and Los Angeles, California. Analysis revealed that English-language newspapers contained a greater volume of health news information and significant t-test results indicated a greater frequency of biomedical and financial–economic frames than Spanish-language newspapers contained. Los Angeles and Miami comparisons also yielded significant differences. Specifically, community–political–environmental and biomedical frames were used more frequently in Los Angeles than in Miami. Author ethnicity was not found to affect health news coverage, but this may be more indicative of the difficulties in measuring ethnicity and the questionable validity of this variable. These fin...

Despite political representation remaining below Latinos’ share of the population, no research has solely compared news coverage between Latino candidates and non-Latino candidates. This study content analyzed 815 newspaper photographs and 608 photograph-associated headlines of Latino candidates and non-Latino candidates in 14 newspapers during the last 2 months of 4 statewide elections between 2003 and 2008 in the U.S. Southwest. Overall, newspaper treatment of Latino and non-Latino candidates competing for statewide office was similar by state. Similarities in newspaper coverage may be explained by institutional policies of balance and news workers viewing Latino senatorial and gubernatorial candidates as equally legitimate and important because of Latinos’ continuous presence and large proportion of the population in the U.S. Southwest.

This study examined fairness and balance in the coverage of same-sex marriage by 5 U.S. newspapers, and how source use, newspaper working context, and media frames affect fairness and balance of the coverage. A content analysis of 209 stories found that overall coverage of same-sex marriage was fair and balanced and stories framed as thematic were more likely to be fair and balanced than stories framed as episodic. Source dominance of the stories was associated with balance of the coverage. Hypotheses about the effects of working context on fairness and balance of news coverage and on media frames were not supported.

This study attempts to determine whether 4 decades after the Kerner Commission, newspapers report more accurately on an increasingly diverse population. Specifically, it studied whether the size of the Asian American population covered by a newspaper influences the coverage of Asian Americans in newspaper articles. It appears that although newspapers situated within larger Asian American communities report more frequently, at more depth, and with more prominence on Asian Americans, the quality of that coverage is not influenced by the size of the Asian American community. In cities with larger Asian American populations, newspapers have responded with increased stories and length but not with increased quality of coverage. This is likely because of newspaper fears of alienating European American readers, leading to a “White flight” in circulation and because of news practices that lead to distorted reports of Asian Americans. These findings renew calls for the newspaper industry to more fairly represent t...

Many mainstream newspapers have diversified their organizations—at least to some extent—by hiring minority journalists. Some scholars argue that a diversified newsroom will improve media coverage of minority communities and issues; others think that the power of journalistic norms will constrain minority journalists so that they will be unable or unwilling to enhance the news coverage of minorities. In this article, the authors examine journalistic norms and racial diversity in mainstream newsrooms by conducting face-to-face interviews with African American and Latino journalists working at mainstream papers. They investigate journalists' perceptions of how norms influence their behavior and their attitudes about advocacy. They also examine their perceptions of audience characteristics and how they choose sources, and conclude that journalistic norms do shape the behavior of African American and Latino journalists; nevertheless, many of these journalists are still able to bring a unique perspective to the...

In the years since the Kerner Report was released, a combination of technological shifts in the newspaper business and the continued migration of newspapers toward their preferred White and middle class readers in the suburbs and exurbs of America have contributed to the plight of today’s newspaper industry in the United States. The strategy of many daily newspapers to pursue that declining base through the costly creation of satellite or outlying ‘‘zone’’ bureaus and editions has left other media to fill the news void in racially diverse inner cities. Yet, one might argue that the plight of the news business—be it newspaper or electronic—cannot be fully understood today unless factors beyond technological and populations shifts are brought into view. As the American society has evolved demographically over the last decades, the news industry does not appear to have evolved with it. From our vantage point in Washington, DC, where the White House welcomed its first non-White president and first family in the nation’s history earlier this year, the American society looks particularly Brown, Black, and international. The nation’s capital and its nearby suburbs in Maryland and Virginia form a large metropolitan area with an historically large African American population, and recent demographic shifts through immigration have also expanded Latino= Hispanic, African, Caribbean, South Asian, Asian and other racial and ethnic groups. New census data show that between the years 2000 and 2005, five out of every six of the half-million new residents to the Washington metro area were people of color. Hispanics and Asians were in the largest numbers, and most of the growth was in the suburbs of northern Virginia and suburban Maryland (Layton & Keating, 2006). Moreover, what is happening in this global city of our nation’s capital also happens elsewhere. The U.S. census

Competing visions of diversity and national identity come to the fore as news organizations try to redefine the service function of journalism in the face of current demographic trends. This discourse analysis of award-winning stories in the “diversity writing” category of the annual competition sponsored by the American Society of Newspaper Editors identifies narrative strategies employed by journalists to mediate ethnic, class, and racial tensions in the United States. It is argued here that such narratives construct a liberal discourse of multiculturalism and reinforce a model of national integration that sanctions plurality in the sphere of private choice, while promoting a public culture defined by a set of values associated with European-American, middle-class experiences, but presented as an inclusive model of “Americanness.”

Much research on political participation and civic engagement centers on the question: “What motivates people to get involved?” Several communication variables have been purported to influence these activities, such as television, newspaper, and Internet use. The general conclusion is that civic and political participation is declining. However, the rates of decline (or increase) in these activities among certain racial and cultural groups, such as Blacks compared with Whites, is not clear. Furthermore, the roles of religion and the church—an important component in creating bonds and networks that encourage such participation—have received little attention among communication scholars. The authors sought to examine the intricacies among race, religiosity, and political and civic engagement by expanding the current literature on social capital to include cultural and contextual components of church involvement. They found that in a national sample, the more involved Blacks are with church and the more freq...

Prior research has shown journalists often rely on gender and racial stereotypes when covering female and minority candidates running against a White, male for political office. This study uses a content analysis of newspaper articles and editorials to examine what changes, if any, occur in media coverage when a woman and a minority run against each other without a White, male candidate in the race. The findings of this research indicate that journalists in this study have made some progress in reducing stereotypes in their coverage; however, they are still covering candidates in significant stereotypical ways. Although these journalists are focusing less on appearance of candidates, the female candidate in this study received more coverage about her gender, and the minority candidate received more coverage of his race. Despite the candidates' previous experience to the contrary, these journalists still aligned the woman candidate with traditional female issues and the man with traditional male issues.

Content analyses of news about Blacks are numerous, but few compare content over time in mainstream and Black-owned media organizations in a single market. This report analyzes local news items from Boston media during 30-day periods in 1986 and 2001. Although crime news concerning Blacks was less frequent in 2001, it dominated mainstream news about Blacks in both years despite journalists' pledges to overhaul racial-news coverage after questionable reporting of a racially charged insurance hoax in 1989. Conversely, story selection in New England's oldest Black newspaper showed dramatic change. These findings are consistent with organizational change theory, and add nuance to Wilson and Gutierrez's (1985) model of the evolution of mainstream coverage of minorities.

Using inductive and deductive framing analysis, the authors examine how 4 newspapers covered a key event sparking the civil rights movement—the 1955 murder of Emmett Till—in an effort to gauge how the press covers events that are part of larger social ferment. The Daily Sentinel-Star (Grenada, Mississippi), Greenwood Commonwealth (Mississippi), Chicago Tribune, and Chicago Defender varied in intensity of coverage, use of sources, and attention to crime news and, as a result, framed the story differently. The African American Defender defended Emmett Till's reputation, focused on larger issues of civil rights, and provided a clear argument for social reform. The 3 mainstream dailies defined the case primarily as one in which the victim invited his own death; they provided little or no support for reform. In this case, an advocate press seemed better able to give voice to those who challenged an entrenched status quo. By examining initial coverage of the Till case, we can better understand the news reportin...

This article analyzes newspaper diversity from the viewpoint of journalists identified with communities of color. In interviews at 4 large-circulation newspapers serving communities of color, the authors found a pattern of recurring critical issues facing the journalists in their efforts to diversify the news. The journalists interviewed here suggest that diversity (a) cannot be achieved until racist traditions and patterns in their newspapers' coverage are addressed, (b) must be seen as being a critical and important news value, (c) is only truly achieved when persons of color occupy critical positions of power at the newspaper, and (d) is also a function of the journalists of color ability to represent their communities to the newspapers and to represent their newspapers to the communities.

Gary Webb's “Dark Alliance” series chronicles a drug ring that stretched from inner-city Los Angeles to the Nicaraguan Contra army. Frequently identified as a conspiracy theory in mainstream press coverage, Webb's work evoked widespread African American support. The mainstream media largely dismissed Webb's conclusions and portrayed the Black community as gullible conspiracy advocates. Using Foucault's concepts of the discursive formation and the discursive effect, the academic and public discourses surrounding the conspiracy theory are analyzed, and the discursive effects of the charge of conspiracy theory are considered in relation to the reporting of a large African American newspaper, the Los Angeles Sentinel.

The issue of reparations being awarded to descendants of U.S. slaves has appeared on both the media and policy agendas; this study examines differences in how four mainstream and four Black newspapers covered this issue. A content analysis revealed that the majority of the slavery reparations articles were printed in the Black press, and a larger percentage of Black press articles were pro-slavery reparations. Both mainstream and Black newspapers most often covered the issue in a legislative context rather than moral or legal one, and both rarely addressed slavery reparations in the context of its potential positive or negative effect on relations between U.S. Blacks and Whites. A larger percentage of mainstream press articles compared slavery reparations with other reparations such as those paid to Japanese internment survivors, Holocaust survivors, and American Indians than did the Black press. In short, the results of this study indicate that Black press coverage of slavery reparations differe...

Research has suggested that the present media merger frenzy will result in one-dimensional content due to a reduced number of media outlets and pervasive cross-ownership. This research content analyzed 1,180 articles about environmental pollution over 29 years from 4 different groups of newspapers, each with different ownership, socioeconomic readership, geographic location, and circulation. Results revealed that content was overwhelmingly directed to upper-socioeconomic groups across all four categories of newspapers regardless of specific issue or time. Heavily weighted coverage that could not have been found through random chance alone indicated an abandonment of a newspapers' social responsibility function. This abdication was attributed to the industry-wide, pervasive journalistic norms and the importance of advertising revenue.

This framing analysis of news, feature, and editorial texts identified the frames used to depict American Indians in the Boston Globe from 1999–2001. The results suggest that stereotypical good and bad Indian depictions are less frequent than in turn-of-the-century media but emerge more subtly through frames of degraded and historic relic Indians. Thus, whereas contemporary mores have produced a newspaper largely devoid of the most flagrant narratives of denigration that prevailed a century ago, today's newspaper continues to de-humanize and silence American Indians as it gives voice to the dominant culture. Furthermore, differences among the frames across story types support theories that structure and organization influence content frames.

The Olympic Games is a global sporting event framed in popular culture as promoting diversity and equal opportunity. This study looks at racialized depictions of U.S. Olympic (2000) athletes in 5 U.S. daily (4 regional and 1 national) newspapers. More than 800 images of U.S. Olympic athletes were examined to see if depictions mirrored the reality of the Games and if depictions reinforced notions of racial and sexual difference. The medal count of U.S. athletes, tabulated by race, gender, sport type, and sport category, was used as the “reality gauge” for this study. While the newspapers presented ratios of male and female competitors realistically, they overrepresented Black athletes. Black males were also overrepresented in strength sports. Such depictions reinforce hegemonic notions of Black primitive athleticism and of racial difference.

This comparative study of the Washington Post and the Daily Times of Nigeria examines the factor of cultural variability in international news selection. Specifically, the study examines whether in an individualistic culture, that is, the United States, and in a collectivist culture, that is, Nigeria, newspapers focus on news about individuals, or about groups, or about events, and whether such focus is negative or positive. The results indicate that both newspapers carried more neutral news than negative news. Results also suggest that group needs, values, and goals take precedence over individual needs, values, and goals in the U.S. newspaper as well as in the Nigerian newspaper.

News values may incorporate journalistic biases that then insinuate themselves into the final news story. This study analyzes form as a news value and studies how regional and local newspapers report on one Native American issue, demonstrating that as currently used in reporting on ethnic cocultures, form as a journalistic bias serves to promote detrimental "rhetorical visions" about the minority community. Considering form as a catalyst, we offer a critical "model" of the following: (1) Who is / is not quoted? (2) Who is / is not given credence by title? (3) Where are those cited positioned within the news reports? (4) Whose ideas are supported (reinforced)/questioned? and (5) Which details are included or excluded? The model portrays how the repetition of the form of the news story focuses the perspective of reporting toward one group and against another.

As minority and community media, Latino newspapers are potential communication resources that individuals, families, and organizations can use to meet crucial needs, such as health care. This study addressed the question of how well Latino newspapers operate as health communication resources for Latinos. A content analysis of selected daily and weekly Latino newspapers revealed that Latino newspapers function well as transmitters of clinical health information provided by outside sources, such as the health industry and scientific and medical communities, but they seldom make health information directly relevant to the Latino community . Latino newspapers also neglect political, socioeconomic, and policy information that can contextualize Latino health issues and empower Latinos to act as informed citizens. Our findings led us to conclude that Latino newspapers are not realizing their potential as community media as effectively as they might.

Press coverage of the Spanish - American War in U. S. newspapers is often cited as the classic example of sensationalist and jingoist propaganda. This research approaches the reporting of this war as a form of colonial discourse that supported the ideology of imperialism at the turn of the century, and revealed a process of inscribing ethnic otherness on the colonized people of Puerto Rico. Through a textual analysis of news reports of the U. S. military occupation of the island in six metropolitan dailies, this study argues that the rhetorical modes used in news writing served to represent Puerto Ricans as subjects in need of continuing colonial administration.

Many mainstream historians have glossed over early 20th - century Black opposition to Jim Crow segregation and lynchings in the United States . In particular , radicalism has been equated with Whites such as politician Eugene V . Debs or journalist J . A . Wayland , rarely with Blacks . In reality , African Americans produced a variety of newspapers and magazines opposing or questioning their turn - of - the - century societal status quo . Many have not been preserved but four survivors , The Guardian, Crisis, Messenger, and Negro World, represent an important if neglected chapter in the African American battle for civil rights . This article examines and analyzes the four , comparing aspects such as appearance , circulation , advertising support , and radical and non - radical content . It also contrasts them to other radical publications , specifically the late 19th - and early 20th - century German - American radical press . It finds that each was radical in its own individualistic way , some more than...

This case study deconstructs the media frame of the racial divide used by the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Defender to define the public reaction to the October 3, 1995, Simpson criminal verdict. This frame analysis identifies differences and similarities between 2 newspapers, 1 mainstream and 1 Black, as they define, interpret, and evaluate the public reaction to Simpson's acquittal. The common frame of the racial divide advances specific common‐sense beliefs about the role race plays in U.S. social relations. Despite the different histories of the 2 newspapers with regard to race, both papers articulate strikingly similar common sense assumptions about the role of race in U.S. social relations that compel readers to make sense of the world within the narrow confines of the Black‐White dialectic. This dialectic of racial reasoning obscures alternative pathways of making sense of social conflict in U.S. society.

This article analyzes the news coverage in the Washington Post regarding the debate over integration surrounding President Truman's executive order of July 26, 1948, which mandated integration of the armed forces. Examination of the Post's coverage reveals how racism and African Americans were portrayed in the news during a pivotal juncture in the civil rights movement and how the pro‐integration newspaper challenged the dominant ideology. The Post's paternalistic stance denied African Americans visibility in the struggle for civil rights and reflected a transitional stage between traditional and modern racism after the Second World War.

The decision to run or not run lesbian and gay commitment announcements—or “wedding”; announcements—in newspapers is inherently political, involving choices about how to represent the world and whose definitions to use. I begin by examining oppression, media representations of lesbians and gays, and the politics of visibility. Then, drawing on interviews with editors at papers that run the announcements, I point out the limitations of basing a decision to run the announcements on the ideology of objectivity. While supporting that decision, I argue that journalists should more openly address the politics of newsmaking. The retreat to objectivity, while sometimes a good short‐term strategy for deflecting critics, is counterproductive and dishonest. Journalists should make a commitment to a liberatory politics that explicitly works for people who are oppressed.

Based on data gathered from more than 3,000 adults (voters) from all parts of Japan, this study focuses on the extent to which contact with the news media affects political attitudes. The study analyses three media consumption variables: exposure to print and broadcast media in general, attention to their political coverage and political content use, and their relationship with political involvement and disapprobation variables. The results show that there is a strong association within—and between—mass media variables; that contact with both newspapers and television is significantly related to political attitude variables; and that there is great similarity in the way both news media channels affect individuals in Japan.

The Cleveland Gazette was established in the midst of the major civil rights setbacks of the late 19th century. Although Cleveland, Ohio, provided a racially liberal climate, the Gazette revealed incidents of discrimination against Blacks and demanded that the incidents be corrected. As the Gazette reflected and commented on interracial behavior, it not only exemplified the Black press's role as a barometer for race relations, but also the importance of racial equality in a democratic society.

The author studied newspaper coverage of the last month of mayoral races in four cities that, for the first time, featured viable Black candidates. The study, spanning 23 years, finds that newspapers gave different treatment to the two racial candidate groups. Among other things, Black candidates received more positive coverage than expected—including more front‐page, above‐the‐fold coverage. But the price for that coverage seemed to come in stories dealing with Black candidates' ethical qualities—a much stronger look than that given to White candidates. Although the issue of race seemed to gain mention over time, most stories still featured the traditional campaign‐type coverage, with policy themes a fairly distant second. In terms of bias, although Black candidates received slightly more negative coverage, most stories about the elections were either positive, balanced, or neutral, indicating journalists may want to examine such coverage to determine whether an inordinate amount of control by the candid...