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This article aims to provide the first academic attempt at a map of research on disinformation in Spain. In order to accomplish this, literature on the subject in recent years was reviewed and a query was made on the database of the State Research Agency. This was performed under the section dedicated to grants, using the search keywords "disinformation", "verification", "fake news", "factchecking" and "fact checking". Repetitions and those projects that were not relevant to the areas of Social Sciences, Law and Information and Communication Technologies were filtered out. Thus, 18 research projects granted between 2018 and 2021 were analyzed. The selection involved the aforementioned keywords, and the variables of the study included the university associated with the project, its budget, the area and sub-area and type of grant resulting from the query. Others were also added afterwards, such as the focus and the object of study, the methodology and the context, all designed by the authors of this article. The consultation was performed from December 12th to 16th, 2022. As a consequence, the final approval that was communicated at that time, corresponding to 2021, has not been included; unlike the proof of the concept of that year. Among the results, the sum of over one million euros among all the projects belonging to all mentioned areas is worth noting. This accounts for an average of one hundred and six thousand euros per project, with the University of Vigo (three projects) and the University Carlos III, in Madrid, at the top of the ranking when it comes to this field of study. In terms of budget, the University of Cádiz, with one hundred and thirty-nine thousand euros, and the University of Vigo, with one hundred and thirty-eight thousand, six hundred euros, were the ones that received the biggest portion of funding in the calls from 2018 to 2021. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disinformation has become one of the main problems for society and democracy. Despite the increase in research on this topic, citizen perception of the effects caused by fake news and how to combat it is yet an ongoing issue. Our objective is to analyze these two aspects in the context of COVID-19 in Spain. Also, we seek to identify the sociodemographic and political factors that determine them. We employed a quantitative survey run through an online panel (n=682). The results indicate that disinformation generates, as the primary effect, an increase in mistrust towards the media and politicians among Spanish citizens. Likewise, the incidence of disinformation in the change of opinion and the decision to vote has dropped. Concerning Coronavirus, falsehoods had a low impact on vaccination, although they promoted conspiracy theories among citizens. Men, young people and far-right sympathizers perceive the consequences of deception more intensely. Finally, the work of fact-checking agencies and legislation are the mechanisms to combat disinformation that citizens consider most reliable. These results have important implications for public institutions and journalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More and more people are retrieving information through social networks, whose routines for creating, sharing and reacting to content have favored the appearance of hoaxes and false information. In this context, there is a proliferation of initiatives dedicated to content verification, which combat disinformation using the native language and codes of this environment. The purpose of this article is to analyse the publications with the highest volume of interactions made by the Ibero-American fact-checkers of the International Fact-Checking Network during 2021, to determine their reach and impact among audiences. After compiling the metadata of a total of 36,359 posts published by 19 issuers, a quantitative and content analysis was carried out of the six publications with the best interaction ratio for each of them during the analysis period (n=114). Most of them are links or photographs on political content, where textual verification of the content is almost as frequent as the use of visual or iconic elements that reinforce the message. The main type of interaction is of an emotional nature, with significant correlations observed between users' reactions and the number of times a post has been shared. In addition, the results of the research show that those publications with a higher interaction ratio cause an increase in followers in the days following the publications that is much higher than that which would be generated organically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disinformation about feminism and its agenda has always existed, but its production and circulation has increased with the widespread use of the internet and social media for news consumption, to the point where digital sexism is becoming an increasingly serious problem. The objective of this research is to analyze the characteristics of falsehoods about feminism and its agenda that circulate in Ibero-America through new media. For this purpose, a content analysis of 11 variables is applied to the 271 rebuttals published by 12 Spanish-language media verifiers--all of whom are accredited by the International Fact-Checking Network--from eight Ibero-American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela and Spain). The results show the preponderance of hoaxes with fabricated multimedia materials or shared without alteration; published by fake, citizen and media accounts; with real or anonymous sources; with polarizing intentions; focused on gender-based violence, abortion and subsidies to feminist entities; and appealing to negative emotions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disinformation and fake news are phenomena prior to the birth of social media, but with their consolidation they have become more visible and numerous, especially due to the ease of their creation and dissemination. Journalism has a fundamental mission as a shield against this problem and as a creator of truthful news and content, but for this it needs to maintain credibility among society, which is very inclined to doubt traditional media. This article investigates the perception that professional journalists have about the influence of these two phenomena --disinformation and hoaxes--, as well as content verification mechanisms --fact checking-- in the performance of the journalistic profession and its future evolution. The procedure chosen for data collection consisted of 20 interviews with journalists who currently practice the profession in Spain, with the aim of offering us a panoramic view of the actions of journalism against disinformation and fake news, as well as what their relationship with the audience. The results show a positive and firm attitude of the profession to fight against false news, claiming its professionalism, valuing the verification of the contents and the role of trusted information sources, and a critical vision in which it is put the focus on the need for both the media and viewers to put more effort and interest in being well informed. It is also recognized that we are facing a phenomenon that can only be partially solved given its complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disinformation has reached a high degree of professionalization in recent years. Dark PR or Black PR campaigns are an advanced level of negative campaigns and they fictionalize prescription and influence, usually with the aim of discrediting the political adversary or competitor. This paper proposes a systematic review of the search results of the terms Black PR and Dark PR in Google and Google Scholar. The aim is to identify the definitions and origins of both terms, to know the strategies used in these works and as well as the case studies that serve to exemplify them. It is observed that both terms are still very new and are used more by the media than by the academic literature, although they have common definitions and uses. A growing trend of negative influence practices is reported with numerous examples of astroturfing, disinformation campaigns and corporate censorship in different countries. This circumstance is problematic for the public relations sector as it differs from the ethical principles of the profession and forces those who practice it to engage in dishonest practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although a certain attitude of opposition to the adult and established world has traditionally been presumed by the youngest, it is true that some current social conditions, in addition to digital technology itself, make it more present now. Activism in and through social networks has become a frequent channel for this age group to present their demands and discontent, and it is worth reflecting on the characteristics that surround this generation and also the particularities of the use they make of technology itself. Among the former, the lengthening of dependence on the adult world stands out, which implies a potential delay in the processes of maturity. This brings with it a vital discontent that finds in the networks a perfect setting to be manifested and to fight against the establishment. Regarding technology, it is clear that it satisfies the needs of young people at many levels, which makes it almost essential for their daily lives, at least in the developed societies. These reflections raise questions to be addressed within the framework of the study of young people and digital activism and that have to do with the degree of development of their digital competence, with their ability to fight against disinformation and its devastating effects on democracies, and also with the most human roots that raises the multidimensional use they make of technology. Young people occupy and live in digital spaces, and this implies radically confronting this reality, also from research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the 2014 referendum in the UK on Scottish independence, a number of political leaders in the West have accused the Russian government of industrial-scale organised disinformation, designed to undermine the democratic process. A number of allegations have also suggested that the Kremlin has been providing financial and other aid to far-right groups in the West to disrupt the political process. In this analysis, the case study of the UK is taken in the period 2014-20. An examination is taken of current research on the scale and effect of organised Russian disinformation strategies; and the emerging official narrative in the UK government about how to deal with the problem. This narrative reveals a complex interplay between defending democracy, while maintaining a "hands-off" approach and ensuring that tech business is welcomed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise of social media, together with a particularly convulsive political situation, has fostered the spread of fake news and other information disorders. In this context, several media outlets and non-profit institutions have launched different verification initiatives with the objective of empowering individuals to critically evaluate fake news. The objective of this research is to explore the potential of five newsgames designed to educate users against disinformation. The methodological proposal is based on an exploratory content analysis of the newsgames, to identify the mechanics, dynamics, and narrative formulas used in its design. Our findings reveal that the correct choice of mechanics and dynamics allows complex arguments to be created in a way that is consistent with news standards. Thus, the intersection of journalism, education, and gaming facilitates "information-driven media" in which news content is constructed through interaction with the game system and is not included just as an accessory element. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The following article examines the relevance of gender and intersectional analyses to better understanding hybrid threats, in particular those that are increasingly targeting civilian environments. The authors first present relevant concepts including hybrid threats and warfare, resilience, disinformation, civilian agency, and intersectionality as a method. Thereafter they discuss how disinformation is used to destabilise societies by directly attacking civilian spaces and attempting to foment polarisation and unrest, if not conflict. The authors then discuss how the concepts of disinformation and civilian agency are illuminated through gender and intersectional analyses, speaking to complex, civilian contexts by examining how gender (and race) have been employed to attempt to foment destabilisation. They conclude with some brief reflections about the role of gender and intersectional approaches in understanding hybrid threats and warfare, not just in Europe but also for other parts of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid Threats is a concept that has entered to many states official documents and security strategies. Both the EU and NATO have taken serious measures to counter hybrid threats related activity. This special issue on digital communication and hybrid threats aims to advance our understanding of how hybrid threat actors use and can potentially exploit the information environment for targeting our democratic societies and decision-making processes at different levels for different purposes. Information and communication technologies have brought remarkable advances in the ways we obtain information and build awareness on the world and its events and interact with the others, but at the same time, these developments create opportunities for conducting information and influence operations with a hostile intent at an unprecedented scales. Political warfare, active measures, and communication-led covert actions operations are not new, and propaganda has been used throughout the history in conflict and war like situations. However, today our digital communication environment and the communication tools that we employ for legitimate purposes are also being employed by hostile authoritarian actors and/or their proxies at a scale that has interfered in our democratic processes like elections, to erode trust in our institutions, polarize and divide our societies in unhealthy ways and sow animosities between states and international partner countries. Since human beings make decisions based on their representations about the world and the information available through interpersonal symbolic interactions and through the different media, information can be deliberately utilized for a malign activity to produce cognitive, affective and behavioural effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information disorder (satire or parody, false connections, misleading content, false context, imposter content, manipulated content or fabricated content) is a social problem that is causing collective damages. Women, in particular, are becoming victims of hostilities on the digital scenario. This problem is currently known as "digital sexism" and "gender disinformation". In this context, verification journalism, a trendy format, aims to reduce the effects of hoaxes introducing the fact-checking process in its professional routines. However, this is still a minority task. In order to contribute to the study of the disinformation phenomenon in relation to online messages about women, this research has developed a systematic tool to classify hoaxes that have been refuted by the platform Maldita.es, specifically, on its sections Maldito Feminismo (N=71). This tool, inspired by the taxonomies created by Derakhshan & Wardle (2017), Tandoc, Lim & Ling (2018) and Molina, Sundar, Le & Lee (2019), allows you to categorize fake news according to the type of information disorder, the agent, the message and the interpreter. The results of this study (internal validity) show that hoaxes detected by Maldito Feminismo are misleading content that expect to damage feminism (this is the main topic of fake news) and have a political purpose. These information disorders are displayed in text format and are mainly created and distributed on social networks. Moreover, although users collaborate and participate detecting and reporting hoaxes, the platform Maldito Feminismo identifies, locates and denounces most of the fake news. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The media ecosystem is constantly changing, transforming at a rhythm that educational institutions cannot keep up with. In this media transformation, artificial intelligence (AI) has been introduced, adapted to social networks for various purposes, including political ones. This work focuses on AI in bot format as an automated tool to publish content on Twitter and on the skills needed to identify them. Bots seek to imitate human behaviour to create a climate of concrete opinion, participate in political conversations and interact with real accounts in order to boycott them or increase their relevance. In order to know the level of media literacy of journalism students and increase their skills to identify this type of manipulation of the public sphere, a teaching intervention is designed at university level, applied to a sample of 55 students, consisting of a workshop to identify bots on Twitter. From the results of the workshop, evaluated through questionnaires, it is observed that the students have previous skills acquired informally to detect bots and that after the workshop the ability to identify these accounts slightly increases and, above all, they manifest a more conscious process when they face them. This paper presents the design of the workshop and its evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]