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Truck platooning uses networking technology and automated driving support systems to join multiple trucks in a group. When these vehicles interact for particular journey stages, such as on highways, they autonomously maintain a predefined, tight spacing among themselves. Platooning improves transportation by making better use of highways, delivering cargo faster, and minimizing congestion in traffic. Therefore, safety and platooning are two important attributes of an intelligent truck system. This paper discusses a quantum-safe blockchain-empowered authentication mechanism for autonomous truck platooning. The proposed idea is to use blockchain to combine multiple nodes and ensure authenticity with the help of an aggregation technique. The proposed design ensures authenticity to the system due to hard assumptions:1) Learning With Error (LWE) and 2) Short Integer Solution (SIS) on random module generated lattice. This paper uses operations over module lattices to be more efficient than general lattices. We can perform operations on module lattices with the help of fast algorithms for polynomial arithmetic.

Secure end-to-end voice communication is crucial, but it has several issues. Researchers in this field can benefit from a review paper with broader evaluation parameters than existing literature and from a coverage of security algorithms for voice communication. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of end-to-end secure voice communication and evaluation of various methods for securing voice transmissions over communication networks. The evaluation parameters include System Throughput Capacity, Transmission Error Rate, Recovered Speech Quality, and Security of the System. The analysis results show that Steganography category is the most popular technique in recent years and the most promising category to implement high system throughput capacity. Modem-based Cryptography category is the most promising category to implement standard security algorithms with low system throughput capacity. Meanwhile, chaotic Cryptography provide suitable cryptography for voice security. Furthermore, the results reveal gaps in proposed solutions, including the evaluation and improvement of speech quality, the need for further development of compatible method to implement standard security algorithms, and the extensive development space for Artificial Intelligent based method.

The Internet of Things (IoT) represents a dynamic infrastructure, leveraging sensing and network communication technology to establish ubiquitous connectivity among people, machines, and objects. Due to its end devices’ limited computing resources and storage space, it is not feasible to merely transpose traditional internet security technologies directly to IoT endpoints. Maintaining security while concurrently ensuring performance is a particularly challenging endeavor. This paper provides a review of key agreements and authentication protocols pivotal to the security of IoT. First, this survey discusses the applications that need authentication and key agreement to strengthen their security and current research on these application fields. Subsequently, this paper engages in an in-depth exploration of the phase involved in the scheme of authentication and key agreement, including an examination of the cryptographic techniques employed within these processes. This survey also thoroughly studies the scheme’s security services, potential attacks, formal analysis and informal analysis to ensure resilience against such threats. This study aims to provide a profound understanding of the recent research on authentication and key agreement in IoT applications. It strives to contribute towards strengthening security systems for IoT applications, ensuring their sustainability in the face of evolving threats.

Blockchain, a distributed and digital ledger technology, has the potential to transform several industries from cryptocurrencies to supply chains. However, the complexity of understanding the technology can be a challenge for most people, especially for newcomers. This study paper aims to provide an in-depth analysis and review of the different layers including the data, network, consensus, smart contract, and application layers. In this paper, we performed an in-depth analysis and review of the components of each layer. We also tried to simulate different consensus algorithms so a reader can understand which blockchain consensus algorithm can be chosen for a specific application. By reading this paper, a reader can understand the blockchain architecture and choose the right algorithms, languages and protocols for building their own blockchain network. The paper also addresses the challenges and difficulties of building a sustainable and secure blockchain. We believe that the choice of consensus algorithm is the most important thing for sustainability in a blockchain network. We show that some consensus algorithms use much more energy than others, and we suggest that developers choose consensus algorithms that use less energy. This paper is a great resource for anyone who wants to learn more about blockchain architecture and consensus algorithms. It gives a complete review of the subject and talks about the difficulties of making a blockchain that will be secure and sustainable. Researchers, developers, and anyone else interested in the future of blockchain technology will be interested in this study.

Malicious assaults and information leakage have grown in importance in practically every area of information and communication technology (ICT) in recent years. Enterprise ledger organization, preservation, security, and protection are all greatly aided by information security (IS). To maintain their positions in the market, industries must safeguard their data and other vital assets. The main goals of this paper’s systematic review, which covers the entire process of privacy protection and security, are to introduce cryptographic IS for Industry 5.0 (the Fifth Industrial Revolution) as a comprehensive solution that provides regulatory compliance and IS policies in addition to the industrial goals. The review covers the four main areas: 1) recognizing the need for frameworks to be developed for a secure Industry 5.0 lifecycle; 2) emphasizing security guidelines, procedures, and countermeasures for Industry 5.0; 3) applying control, access, and availability in real-time; and 4) proposing a futuristic architecture for industrial information security. Furthermore, the analysis of previously published state-of-the-art techniques is presented in this paper. These techniques survive with various limitations and challenges, including intercommunication exchange, fine-grained control access, and interconnectivity-related issues, which affect the adoption of an IS in industrial programs. At the end of this systematic review, we investigated a few open research problems and mentioned those that are involved in the design of cryptographic re-encryption enabled IS for future Industry 5.0 developments.

This paper provides a comprehensive survey of different techniques for Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) -based cryptography and steganography. DNA-based cryptography is an emerging field that utilizes DNA molecules’ massive parallelism and vast storage capacity to encode and decode information. The field has gained significant attention in recent years due to its potential advantages over traditional cryptographic methods, such as high storage capacity, low error rate, and resistance to environmental factors. In this paper, we review three types of DNA-based cryptography: natural DNA cryptography, pseudo-DNA cryptography, and DNA-based steganography. For each technique, we discuss its advantages and limitations, as well as future directions for research. Our goal is to contribute to a better understanding of the applications and limitations of using DNA for cryptographic purposes. We believe that our analysis will be useful for researchers working on developing new techniques for secure data transmission using DNA molecules.

Hardware security modules play a crucial role in protecting and preserving technologically integrated systems that are used in daily life. They employ cryptographic protocols to secure a system against adversaries. Generally, cryptographic algorithms and security keys are quintessential for maintaining the security of a system. Cryptography uses a secret key to encipher and decipher the data. These secret keys are stored in a non-volatile memory that attackers can easily access. The hardware security primitive, Physical Unclonable Function (PUF) is a promising alternative for enhancing the security of interconnected devices. A PUF produces an output in response to an input based on the physical structure and intrinsic manufacturing variations of an integrated circuit (IC). The generated random response being unpredictable, act as a robust secret key in cryptographic protocols. The first silicon PUF is the Arbiter PUF, which can instantly produce significantly more secret keys based on the input with a lightweight design. Due to its advantage, it is best suited for device authentication in resource-constrained applications employing the Internet of Things (IoT). The PUF is also suitable for applications such as the Internet of Vehicles, the Internet of Medical Things, RFID (radio frequency identification) tags, and smart cards. In this paper, the basic Arbiter PUF design is implemented in ZedBoard to analyze the PUF performance characteristics for 16, 32, and 64-bit responses. A review of Arbiter PUF design, different compositions of Arbiter PUF, their individual characteristics, and vulnerabilities against machine-learning attacks have been presented at their broader best in this paper.

As we move into a new decade, the global world of Intelligent Infrastructure (II) services integrated into the Internet of Things (IoT) are at the forefront of technological advancements. With billions of connected devices spanning continents through interconnected networks, security and privacy protection techniques for the emerging II services become a paramount concern. In this paper, an up-to-date privacy method mapping and relevant use cases are surveyed for II services. Particularly, we emphasize on post-quantum cryptography techniques that may (or must when quantum computers become a reality) be used in the future through concrete products, pilots, and projects. The topics presented in this paper are of utmost importance as (1) several recent regulations such as Europe's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) have given privacy a significant place in digital society, and (2) the increase of IoT/II applications and digital services with growing data collection capabilities are introducing new threats and risks on citizens' privacy. This in-depth survey begins with an overview of security and privacy threats in IoT/IIs. Next, we summarize some selected Privacy-Enhancing Technologies (PETs) suitable for privacy-concerned II services, and then map recent PET schemes based on post-quantum cryptographic primitives which are capable of withstanding quantum computing attacks. This paper also overviews how PETs can be deployed in practical use cases in the scope of IoT/IIs, and maps some current projects, pilots, and products that deal with PETs. A practical case study on the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is presented to demonstrate how PETs can be applied in reality. Finally, we discuss the main challenges with respect to current PETs and highlight some future directions for developing their post-quantum counterparts.

IoT is becoming more common and popular due to its wide range of applications in various domains. They collect data from the real environment and transfer it over the networks. There are many challenges while deploying IoT in a real-world, varying from tiny sensors to servers. Security is considered as the number one challenge in IoT deployments, as most of the IoT devices are physically accessible in the real world and many of them are limited in resources (such as energy, memory, processing power and even physical space). In this paper, we are focusing on these resource-constrained IoT devices (such as RFID tags, sensors, smart cards, etc.) as securing them in such circumstances is a challenging task. The communication from such devices can be secured by a mean of lightweight cryptography, a lighter version of cryptography. More than fifty lightweight cryptography (plain encryption) algorithms are available in the market with a focus on a specific application(s), and another 57 algorithms have been submitted by the researchers to the NIST competition recently. To provide a holistic view of the area, in this paper, we have compared the existing algorithms in terms of implementation cost, hardware and software performances and attack resistance properties. Also, we have discussed the demand and a direction for new research in the area of lightweight cryptography to optimize balance amongst cost, performance and security.

This paper proposes a number of theorems and algorithms for the Chinese Remainder Theorem, which is used to solve a system of linear congruences, and the extended Rabin cryptosystem, which accepts a key composed of an arbitrary finite number of distinct primes. This paper further proposes methods to relax the condition on the primes with trade-offs in the time complexity. The proposed algorithms can be used to provide ciphertext indistinguishability. Finally, this paper conducts extensive experimental analysis on six large data sets. The experimental results show that the proposed algorithms are asymptotically tight to the existing decryption algorithm in the Rabin cryptosystem with the key composed of two distinct primes while maintaining increased generality.

Cache Side Channel Attacks (SCAs) have gained a lot of attention in the recent past. Since, these attacks exploit the caching hardware vulnerabilities, they are fast and dangerous. Detection of cache side channel attacks is an important step towards mitigating against such hostile entities. Researchers have already proposed different techniques to detect cache side channel attacks. This paper provides a detailed survey of literature related to the state-of-the-art detection techniques for cache based side channel attacks. We identify a set of important characteristics that can be used to characterize a CSCA (cache side channel attack) detection technique. We use the identified features to compare and contrast the most important detection techniques and provide the important observations. We also identify some of the challenges that the research community will have to resolve in future to improve the efficiency of cache side channel detection techniques. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to do such a study. We believe that this paper will prove useful to researchers in the area of systems security.

Once the shared secret key is established, three parties can use it for secure communication using symmetric-key encryption AES (128, 192, 256) algorithms or other cryptographic primitives. Although there are few third-party post-quantum authentication and key agreement protocols exist, but the recent studies in this article show that they are not anonymous or cannot provide forward secrecy. Most of the existing protocols enable adversaries to trace the source of messages. Many of third-party AKA schemes based on conventional public-key cryptosystems are vulnerable to quantum computers. Therefore, this paper contains a forward secure three-party post-quantum authenticated key establishment protocol for mobile devices. The proposed three-party key exchange protocol establishes an authenticated shared key that can be periodically refreshed to maintain forward secrecy. This protocol enables two parties to establish a shared session key even in the presence of quantum adversaries and enables them to communicate confidentially and securely over insecure networks. The protocol is anonymous as both the parties communicate using masked dynamic identities. A contrast study consisting of performance and security assessment is presented, which illustrates the suggested design is more applicable.

We propose in this paper an efficient FALCON accelerator called EFX based on a HW/SW co-design where FALCON is a post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) scheme tailored as a digital signature algorithm (DSA). Our findings reveal that FALCON exhibits unique characteristics and structures which distinguish it from other PQC-DSAs. A key finding is that, unlike its counterparts, FALCON doesn’t prioritize a single, time-consuming task; instead, it processes a variety of tasks with comparable execution times. Consequently, the conventional methods focusing on accelerating dominant few tasks, which are generally effective for other algorithms, prove less efficient for FALCON, especially concerning the minimization of the silicon area used. To overcome this, we strategically focus on the granular optimization of lower-level operations rather than on broader functional segments, aiming to boost performance while conserving hardware space. Moreover, to mitigate the potential degradation due to limitation of hardware resources, we have implemented a pipelined execution strategy for the FALCON functions and refined the sampling function–a critical task that is challenging to accelerate due to inherent sequential algorithm–enabling it to run concurrently on both software and hardware, thus reducing latency. Our hardware design, synthesized at $300MHz$ using Samsung’s $28nm$ and $45nm$ process technologies, demonstrates superior performance in generating FALCON signatures, with a $3.58 \times $ improvement in clock cycles over an existing hardware accelerator. EFX occupies 38K $um ^{2}$ and 74K $um ^{2}$ for $28nm$ and $45nm$ processes, respectively, comparatively small compared to other PQC accelerators.

All of us know that cryptography is an innovative security strategy. Network security construction with authentication techniques of its layers through blockchain technologies is an important field to discuss. The problem that we are trying to solve is the Transaction Privacy Leakage in public Blockchain networks with IOT networks, which has resulted in the publicity of this data on the network as well as synchronizing the information that allowed it to be accessed and propagated between distributed nodes. At the same time, there are some privacy risk concerns associated with public data wherein transactions contain sensitive information about their issuers. Although some previous research introduced models to deal with the problem of Transaction Privacy Leakage like deterministic key generation, mixing services, ring signature, zero-knowledge proof, and quantum-resistant algorithms, the suggested models do not fully achieve prevention or integrity in all cases. This paper presents a developed Multi-Layer Blockchain Security Model (MLBSM) that can be used to protect IoT networks while also facilitating their implementation for protecting IoT networks and similar networks to prevent Transaction Privacy Leakage for all users in the public blockchain network. The clustering concept is utilized to facilitate the multi-layer architecture. By implementing this, we may achieve unprecedented levels of security and transparency in the blockchain network which will protect the privacy of all users in different technologies.

Cloud computing is a fast-growing industry that offers various online services, including software, computing resources, and databases. Its payment model is usage-based, whereas consistency is based on resource-sharing. Cloud storage is popular among individuals and businesses because it reduces cost, increases productivity, boosts performance, and improves security. However, cloud computing comes with security risks as data are stored with third-party providers, and Internet access limits visibility and control. Effective data security and data protection are key issues compared with traditional on-premise computing. There are several methods for ensuring data security in the cloud, of which cryptography is the most important. Cryptography offers a range of security features including authentication, confidentiality, integrity, and availability. However, a thorough examination of the different cryptography methods in a single study is lacking. This study comprehensively examined different cryptography methods, including deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA), elliptic curve, homomorphic, hybrid, lightweight, and novel methods. The analysis addresses their methodology, algorithms, results, applications, and limitations and provides valuable suggestions for data security in the cloud. This paper proposes the use of elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) to ensure safe communication and lightweight cryptography for Internet of Things (IoT) devices with limited resources. This emphasizes the benefit of combining asymmetric security with symmetric efficiency in hybrid cryptography.

Applying blockchain to copyright protection is currently a popular research trend. However, the characteristics of blockchain open data also lead to the threat of copyright privacy leakage. Targeting at this issue, we design a secure digital copyright protection scheme based on blockchain and ring signature algorithm, which can achieve privacy protection of copyright information and improve the efficiency of data authentication. In this paper, we design a new ring signature scheme based on lattice. In this scheme, by using the lattice basis delegation algorithm, user’s public-private key pair is generated without expanding the dimension of lattice. Subsequently, according to the rejection sampling, message is signed by signer’s secret keys and other ring participants’ public keys. It can reduce scheme’s computational complexity. Finally, by combining ring signatures with blockchain technology, a new copyright protection scheme is proposed. More importantly, this scheme is proven to be secure with its correctness and anonymity. Meanwhile, it has less communication costs and shorter key sizes than those in other similar schemes. The results show that the proposed new scheme has good performance and efficiency.

Quantum computing is emerging as a significant threat to information protected by widely used cryptographic systems. Cryptographic methods, once deemed secure for decades, are now at risk of being compromised, posing a massive threat to the security of sensitive data and communications across enterprises worldwide. As a result, there is an urgent need to migrate to quantum-resistant cryptographic systems. This is no simple task. Migrating to a quantum-safe state is a complex process, and many organisations lack the in-house expertise to navigate this transition without guidance. In this paper, we present a comprehensive framework designed to assist enterprises with this migration. Our framework outlines essential steps involved in the cryptographic migration process, and leverages existing organisational inventories. The framework facilitates the efficient identification of cryptographic assets and can be integrated with other enterprise frameworks smoothly. To underscore its practicality and effectiveness, we have incorporated case studies that utilise graph-theoretic techniques to pinpoint and assess cryptographic dependencies. This is useful in prioritising crypto-systems for replacement.

Continuous communication and information technology advancements facilitate the modernization of the conventional energy grid into an integrated platform. Internet-of-Things (IoT) incorporates power systems, particularly smart grid features and the delivery of new services from the utility side to the end user over a two-way communication channel. However, severe security vulnerabilities have been created due to over-dependency on IoT based communication systems. In addition, critical information exchange between any two entities or devices is always an appealing target for cyber-attackers, especially with financial interest motive by damaging integrity, confidentiality and authenticity in a communication channel. Maintaining data security and preserving privacy in between two entities during the transmission or any data distribution are essential. The potential attacks and impacts of those attacks need to be investigated to develop an effective cyber security infrastructure. Thus, considerable researchers focused on detection and mitigation of these vulnerable cyber-attacks using advanced computation tools. This review article thoroughly investigated possible ways to address cyber security challenges such as smart meter security, end-users privacy, electricity theft cyber-attacks using blockchain and cryptography against communication attacks in smart grid. The operational impacts of cyber-attacks on power system security, as well as the economic impact on deregulated energy markets, have been extensively explored. In addition, the robustness of security features and cryptographic methods against various cyber-attacks is investigated to suggest unexplored cyber-attacks for future scope. Specially, the study of real-world cyber security events, case studies, new findings and new scopes in diverse power industries are carried out. More than 135 research articles has been examined for this review article. This paper mainly concentrates on distribution-side cyber-attacks with impact analysis, detection and protection techniques.

The unique set of LoRaWAN design prerequisites, which include low power consumption, cost-effectiveness, and high scalability, requires its security protocols to be equally robust and enduring, especially since devices are often deployed for extended durations in the field. This research paper elucidates a novel cryptographic method for LoRaWAN, hinged on the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) employing a 256-bit key. The efficacy and efficiency of the proposed cryptographic solution are analyzed through a comprehensive performance evaluation. Key performance indicators include the security metric, network throughput, and energy utilization of end-devices. It was observed that augmenting the key size from 128 to 256 bits notably bolsters the resilience of LoRaWAN against various cyber attacks. The results also indicate a marginal disparity between the proposed AES256-based method and the existing AES128-based method with regards to network throughput and energy consumption. However, the enhanced security provided by the AES256 standard underscores its potential as a viable cryptographic method for LoRaWAN, providing a favorable balance between improved security and operational performance.

In a rapidly advancing world of technology, information security studies have become the backbone of the digital age, and steps in this area are critical. In this context, cryptography, in particular, plays a key role in ensuring the confidentiality, integrity and authentication of data. s-box structures provide a certain diversity and security layer in encryption algorithms, forming one of the key elements in this area. This study focuses on the design and analysis of s-box structures, examining the potential impact of chaos theory-based structures on encryption systems. First, it provides a comprehensive classification of existing s-box design proposals in the literature, and explores the contribution of chaos theory to the security features of these structures. The original contribution of the study is the results obtained with the help of the developed analysis and design program. The program optimizes levels of complexity, randomness, and resistance, and demonstrates the resistance of these new structures to cryptanalysis attacks. The paper also draws attention to open issues in the field of chaos-based s-box design and provides a road map for future research. It is estimated that all these findings will provide a common motivation for researchers in the relevant literature and constitute the basis for many practical practices.

The underlying fundaments of blockchain are cryptography and cryptographic concepts that provide reliable and secure decentralized solutions. Although many recent papers study the use-cases of blockchain in different industrial areas, such as finance, health care, legal relations, IoT, information security, and consensus building systems, only few studies scrutinize the cryptographic concepts used in blockchain. To the best of our knowledge, there is no Systematization of Knowledge (SoK) that gives a complete picture of the existing cryptographic concepts which have been deployed or have the potential to be deployed in blockchain. In this paper, we thoroughly review and systematize all cryptographic concepts which are already used in blockchain. Additionally, we give a list of cryptographic concepts which have not yet been applied but have big potentials to improve the current blockchain solutions. We also include possible instantiations of these cryptographic concepts in the blockchain domain. Last but not least, we explicitly postulate 21 challenging problems that cryptographers interested in blockchain can work on.

In recent years hyperchaos has found applications in several fields such as medicine and engineering. It has been applied in image-based applications which require reliable, fast, and robust security systems to store or/and transfer images. Given the increased use of images, there is a fundamental requirement among security in ensuring protection, confidentiality, privacy, integrity, and authenticity of such images. This, in essence, has become a major concern. Many preventive and protective algorithms, including chaos-based schemes, have been developed over the past years in trying to prevent directed attacks. However, many existing chaos-based encryption schemes have been successfully decrypted. One of the main reasons for these chaos-based image encryption schemes being successfully attacked is that the degree of randomness of the chaotic system used is not high enough to guarantee robust encryption. The key space lengths of many of the existing cryptosystems are not long enough to guarantee the desired security properties of chaos-based ciphers. Thus, the security level is lowered. In this paper, a selective image encryption algorithm based on 2D Discrete Wavelet Transform, Henon's Map and 4D Qi Hyper Chaos is proposed. This paper is developed such that 2D DWT is used to decompose the image into details and approximations, Henon chaotic map is used to shuffle the decomposed image pixels' positions. The shuffled image is further encrypted with the bit streams generated by Qi hyperchaos using XOR operation. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm provides a large key space, high security, and resistance to different types of attacks. When compared to some existing algorithms, the performance of the proposed method displays a better performance with respect to security and encryption making it suited for real-time applications.

From an individual's perspective, technological advancement has merits and demerits. Video captured by surveillance cameras while a person goes about their daily life may improve their personal safety but the images collected may also represent an invasion of their privacy. Because of the ease of digital information sharing, there exists a need to protect that visual information from illegal utilization by untrusted parties. The European parliament has ratified the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which has been effective since May 2018 with a view to ensuring the privacy of European Union (EU) citizens' and visitors' personal data. The regulation has introduced data safeguards through Pseudonymisation, Encryption, and Data protection-by-design. However, the regulation does not assist with technical and implementation procedures, such as video redaction, to establish those safeguards. This paper refers to the GDPR term “personal data” as “visual personal data” and aims to discuss regulatory safeguards of visual privacy, such as reversible protection, from the technological point-of-view. In the context of GDPR, the roles of machine learning (i.e. within computer vision), image processing, cryptography, and blockchain are explored as a way of deploying Data Protection-by-Design solutions for visual surveillance data. The paper surveys the existing market-based data protection solutions and provides suggestions for the development of GDPR-compliant Data Protection-by-Design video surveillance systems. The paper is also relevant for those entities interacting with EU citizens from outside the EU and for those regions not currently covered by such regulation that may soon implement similar provisions.

With extraordinary growth in the Internet of Things (IoT), the amount of data exchanged between IoT devices is growing at an unprecedented scale. Most of the IoT devices are low-resource devices handling sensitive and confidential data. Conventional encryption methods are inappropriate for lowresource devices. Lightweight block ciphers are used to encrypt data on such devices, as it balances security requirements and energy consumption. The objective of this paper is to explore opportunities to improve performance and optimize energy consumption for cipher designs targeted for low-resource IoT devices. This paper also presents an energy management algorithm to improve IoT survivability against Denial-ofservice attacks in the form of battery exhaustion. We developed a simple and effective model for lightweight cipher performance metrics. Model results were compared and validated with published application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and field-programmable gate array (FPGA) designs. Using the model, we explored opportunities for performance enhancement in future cipher designs. Our analysis indicates that the optimum energy is achieved when block size is between 48-bit and 96-bit. Also, increasing size of overhead logic from one round to two rounds increases encryption energy-per-bit by 3.4%. Further, the optimum energy is attained when the number of algorithm rounds is 16 or less. Optimum throughput is achieved by implementations with large block sizes and large number of implemented rounds. Next, we present a novel algorithm to manage cipher energy consumption. The algorithm allows low-resource IoT devices to encrypt critical messages during low-energy mode while balancing throughput, energy per bit, and device activity.

Since it was invented in 1986, elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) has been studied widely in industry and academy from different perspectives. Some of these aspects include mathematical foundations, protocol design, curve generation, security proofs, point representation, algorithms for inherent arithmetic in the underlying algebraic structures, implementation strategies in both software and hardware, and attack models, among others. The main advantage of ECC is that shorter keys (less-memory requirements and faster field arithmetic operations) can be used if compared with other cryptosystems, which has made it the ideal choice for implementing public key cryptography in resource constrained devices, as the ones found in the envisioned applications of the Internet of Things, e.g., wireless sensors. In this application domain, lightweight cryptography has emerged as the required one because of the scarce computing resources and limited energy in devices. In this paper, we present a survey of ECC in the context of lightweight cryptography. The aim of this paper is to identify the criteria that make an ECC-based system lightweight and a viable solution for using in practical constrained applications. Representative works are systematically revised to determine the key aspects considered in ECC designs for lightweight realizations. As a result, this paper defines, for the first time, the concept and requirements for elliptic curve lightweight cryptography.

As an important cryptographic primitive in cloud computing and outsourced computing, fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) is an animated area in modern cryptography. However, the efficiency of FHE has been a bottleneck that impeding its application. According to Gentry’s blueprint, bootstrapping, which is used to control the noise propagation in ciphertexts, is the most important process in FHE. However, bootstrapping is also the most expensive process that affects the scheme’s efficiency. This paper has made three improvements to accelerate the bootstrapping. Firstly, as hundreds of serial homomorphic additions take most of the time of bootstrapping, we constructed the logical expression using truth table to reduce the amount of serial homomorphic additions by two-thirds and thus proposed an efficient FHE scheme with bootstrapping within 10 ms. Secondly, the most expensive parts in our bootstrapping, enhanced homomorphic constant multiplication and homomorphic addition, can be implemented in parallel, which may accelerate the bootstrapping. At last, we proposed a set of more efficient combinations of parameters. Analysis shows that our scheme’s security level is 128 bits and the correctness is improved compared with CGGI16 scheme in ASIACRYPT 2016. Experiments show that the running time of bootstrapping in this paper is within 10 ms, which is only 52% of CGGI16, and is less than CGGI17 in ASIACRYPT 2017.

This paper presents a very large-scale integration (VLSI) circuit design of a micro control unit (MCU) for wireless body sensor networks (WBSNs) in cost-intention. The proposed MCU design consists of an asynchronous interface, a multisensor controller, a register bank, a hardware-shared filter, a lossless compressor, an encryption encoder, an error correct coding (ECC) circuit, a universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter interface, a power management, and a QRS complex detector. A hardware-sharing technique was added to reduce the silicon area of a hardware-shared filter and provided functions in terms of high-pass, low-pass, and band-pass filters according to the uses of various body signals. The QRS complex detector was designed for calculating QRS information of the ECG signals. In addition, the QRS information is helpful to obtain the heart beats. The lossless compressor consists of an adaptive trending predictor and an extensible hybrid entropy encoder, which provides various methods to compress the different characteristics of body signals adaptively. Furthermore, an encryption encoder based on an asymmetric cryptography technique was designed to protect the private physical information during wireless transmission. The proposed MCU design in this paper contained 7.61k gate counts and consumed 1.33 mW when operating at 200 MHz by using a 90-nm CMOS process. Compared with previous designs, this paper has the benefits of increasing the average compression rate by over 12% in ECG signal, providing body signals analysis, and enhancing security of the WBSNs.

A three-party authenticated key exchange protocol enables two entities to agree on a session key with the help of a dedicated server over a public channel. Shor’s algorithm is a big threat to existing authenticated key exchange protocols. Lattice based cryptography plays a very important role in designing authentication and key agreements secure against the threat of quantum attacks. However, it is not an easy job to design quantum resistant password based three party protocols due to the high demand for security requirements and the limited resources nature of mobile devices. In this article, we have proposed a new post quantum three party key exchange based on ring learning with errors assumption. This protocol is motivated by Islam et al.’s authenticated key exchange protocol. Their protocol is not secure against stolen smartcard attacks, or password guessing attacks, and can’t provide user anonymity. Anonymous communication is a big requirement for practical applications like e-healthcare services/smart vehicular communication. This paper also contains the performance analysis of the proposed protocol along with other relevant protocols.

This paper introduces a novel approach to addressing the security challenges of the Internet of Things (IoT) by presenting a secure Chaos-based lightweight cryptosystem. The proposed design incorporates a Pseudo-Chaotic Numbers Generator combined with the Speck64/128 lightweight block cipher, to meet the stringent requirements of security and lightweight characteristics. First, we subject the cryptosystem to a battery of rigorous tests, including various cryptanalytics such as brute-force, differential attacks, and statistical attacks. The results of these tests clearly demonstrate the cryptosystem’s exceptional security resilience and its capacity to effectively withstand these attacks. Then, the novel cryptosystem architecture, specifically designed for resource-limited applications like IoT, was implemented on a Xilinx PYNQ-Z2 XC7Z020 FPGA platform, which aligns perfectly with the constraints of IoT devices. The investigation comprises a thorough analysis and evaluation of the developed cryptosystem according to the algorithm complexity and the achieved precision, hardware area, maximum operational frequency, throughput, efficiency, and power consumption. The findings prove the effectiveness of our approach in terms of computational complexity, memory requirements, and power consumption. Eventually, after reviewing and comparing our results to the existing literature, our cryptosystem’s superiority becomes evident. The simulation results and performance analysis show that the proposed Chaos-Based Lightweight Cryptosystem (SCBLC) can be considered an ideal choice for securing communication in IoT devices with limited resources, making significant strides toward enhancing IoT network security.

One of the significant post-quantum cryptographic candidates is the NTRU public key cryptosystem. It operates on polynomial rings, where the parameter largely determines the security of the system. Although NTRU is being studied currently, it has a long and well-established history. There are several lattice-based attacks on NTRU-like systems that exploit the special structures of the rings used in these systems. The aim of this paper is to analyze the original NTRU, NTRU Encrypt, and NTRU Primes encryption schemes by structuring their common elements and showing the strongest hybrid attack using both lattice reduction and meet-in-the-middle (MITM) search on them. Furthermore, it is noted that, ignoring a polynomial factor of the not-well-studied cost of Block Korkin-Zolotarev (BKZ) algorithm, we estimate the security of the construction of encryption keys and show that by balancing lattice reduction costs and a MITM search cost, one can achieve better performance than using any of these methods on their own. Unlike previous studies, we found the way to ignore polynomial impact 22-24 from BKZ loops with multiple shortest vector problem (SVP) and the factor of 27 was omitted from the cost of one step in guessing the SVP.

Near Field Communication (NFC) has emerged as a pivotal wireless technology for short-range data exchange between devices, including smartphones and wearables. Leveraging Radio Frequency (RF) signals and robust authentication, NFC ensures secure communication in proximity. Mutual authentication (MA) holds paramount importance for establishing trust between device pairs. A prime example of NFC technology is Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), wherein seamless communication occurs between a reader and a tag. However, security and privacy concerns are critical factors in RFID systems, necessitating effective authentication protocols. This paper introduces an efficient and secure MA mechanism for RFID devices, using lightweight block ciphers (LBCs). Specifically, the extended tiny encryption algorithm (XTEA) and the hummingbird algorithm (HBA) using the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode is designed. These tailored algorithms establish a secure communication channel between RFID tags and readers. Notably, the proposed RFID-MA using XTEA and HBA occupies less than 2% of the chip area, encompassing slices and lookup tables (LUTs), and achieves authentication with execution times of $11.6~\mu \text{s}$ and $1.34~\mu \text{s}$ , respectively. In comparison to the RFID-MA approach employing the XTEA methodology, the proposed algorithm reduces the chip area overhead by 24.6%, total power consumption by 3.5%, and execution time by 88.36%. The proposed algorithm is implemented using Verilog hardware description language (HDL) within the Xilinx environment and is realized on a Artix-7 field programmable gate array (FPGA) platform, utilizing the ModelSim simulator. The proposed research extensively presents simulation and synthesis results while considering the critical hardware constraints such as time, power, and area. Furthermore, this study has also conducted a comprehensive performance analysis, comparing essential metrics with existing LBC and authentication methodologies, showcasing substantial improvements.

In recent years, data security has been a challenging endeavor, especially when the data is being transmitted every second. Internet of Things (IoT) involves continuously sending data over public networks, making the data vulnerable to various security threats. Therefore, ensuring the secure end-to-end communication of IoT data is critical. Cryptography and steganography have proven effective in providing secure connectivity for IoT devices. However, challenges in existing approaches include scalability, computational complexity, implementation, key management, trade-offs, evolving threats, and hyperparameter tuning. Therefore, in this paper, we propose EGCrypto, an efficient and secure model for IoT networks. EGCrypto utilizes a low-complexity elliptic Galois cryptography approach along with matrix XOR steganography to enhance security. To optimize its performance, we employ the zoning evolution of control attributes and adaptive mutation based self-adaptive differential evolution with fitness and diversity ranking. These techniques are utilized to fine-tune the hyperparameters of EGCrypto, enhancing its effectiveness and efficiency. The confidential IoT data is encrypted using low-complexity elliptic Galois cryptography. Following encryption, the encrypted data is embedded or hidden into cover blocks of an image, which are selected using the optimization algorithm. This ensures secure data communication in IoT architectures, as the encrypted data is transferred safely and can be easily recovered and decrypted at the receiving end. The experimental results demonstrate that EGCrypto outperforms competitive models with improvements of 1.8473% in peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR), 1.5490% in strutural similarity index metric (SSIM), 1.7682% in normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), 1.3829% in carrier capacity, and 1.9372% in embedding efficiency.

Data security is an increasingly important issue in 2023. Whether about user privacy, data availability, or integrity, consumer information is getting targeted by cyber-pirates for various motives. Many strategies and tools have been developed to keep outsider attackers from accessing server-side data, but there needs to be more solutions that target insider attacks. In this paper, we propose a combinatory attack model to identify the risks of insider attacks against HSM-based security architectures. Our proposed model is based on the study of attack vectors in the security architecture and the conduction of all possible attacks on those vectors. It shows that these typical architectures are vulnerable to private key theft and replacement and data theft, alteration, swapping, nullification, and deletion. Results show that we successfully conducted each attack on an HSM-based security architecture relatively easily. They prove the essential need for a security architecture considering insider threats.

Over the past decade, the transmission of images over digital and social networks, as well as their archiving on clouds, has increased dramatically. It has become necessary and urgent to secure them during their transmission or when archiving. In this paper, we propose a new color image encryption (CIE) scheme based on a single scroll chaotic system, using neurons with two dendrites. The originality of the proposed CIE scheme is that the main encryption step is based only on color pixel scrambling, which is traditionally used for diffusion. Based on the proposed CIE scheme we have developed three different approaches. From color pixel scrambling (CPS), to full color pixel component scrambling (FCPCS), passing through intra-color pixel component scrambling (ICPCS), we show that color pixel component scrambling can act not only as a permutation, but also as a substitution, ensuring both confusion and diffusion properties. The experimental results show that using the proposed scheme, regardless of the approach used, we can efficiently obtain encrypted color images. In particular, the results obtained with the FCPCS approach show that statistical and differential attack analyses are comparable to those obtained with current state-of-the-art methods that combine permutation and substitution steps.

Colored digital images are one of the most important types of digital data to be used in many vital applications, which require a safe way to protect them from hacking operations and the danger of intruders and data thieves. This paper presents an effective and safe method for storing digitally colored images (CASDC). A high level of protection is provided through a complex secret key agreed upon between the sender and the receiver. The secret key consists of nine decimal digits (and can be increased as needed). These digits are processed to extract three values for each color of the three color channels. A left rotation process is performed for the value of each color to produce three new values, where an exclusion process is performed between them to obtain the encrypted value for the color. CASDC is evaluated against a wide range of images to calculate its throughput to show the extent to which this method fulfills encryption and decryption requirements. The Mean Square Error (MSE) values, Peak Signal Noise Ratio (PSNR), and Correlation Coefficient for the three primary channels of the RGB coloring system were analyzed. The practical results of the proposed method are compared with other standard methods such as Data Encryption Standard (DES), Tripple-DES (3DES), Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and Blow Fish (BF). According to the obtained results, CASDC outperforms all standard methods in terms of efficiency by reducing the time of encryption and decryption and increasing the throughput of the corresponding process. Besides, CASDC is robust against breaks, as the attempts to break the private key will require hundreds of years in the best case.

Neural networks based cryptography has seen a significant growth since the introduction of adversarial cryptography which makes use of Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) to build neural networks that can learn encryption. The encryption has been proven weak at first but many follow up works have shown that the neural networks can be made to learn the One Time Pad (OTP) and produce perfectly secure ciphertexts. To the best of our knowledge, existing works only considered communications between two or three parties. In this paper, we show how multiple neural networks in an adversarial setup can remotely synchronize and establish a perfectly secure communication in the presence of different attackers eavesdropping their communication. As an application, we show how to build Secret Sharing Scheme based on this perfectly secure multi-party communication. The results show that it takes around 45,000 training steps for 4 neural networks to synchronize and reach equilibria. When reaching equilibria, all the neural networks are able to communicate between each other and the attackers are not able to break the ciphertexts exchanged between them.

Due to the availability of several social media platforms and their use in sending text messages, it is necessary to provide an easy and safe way to protect messages from being hacked especially in the presence of intruders and data thieves, and taking into consideration that most of messages are confidential and personal, it is necessary to provide an easy and safe way to protect messages from being hacked. In this research paper, a simple and easy method of message cryptography will be proposed. The method divides a message into blocks with fixed sizes. The block size ranges from 2 to 60. The method uses a secret color image to generate an array with a size equal to the number of resulted blocks. The array will then be used as a private key. Each element of the private key will be used to calculate the number of rotation digits for the associated block in order to apply block rotation left operation. The proposed method will be examined using the parameters: Mean Square Error (MSE), Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR), Correlation Coefficient (CC), and throughput. The proposed method will be compared with other standard methods of message cryptography, such as Data Encryption Standard (DES), Triple-DES (3DES), Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and Blow Fish (BF). Experimental results show that the proposed method is enough secured based on using secret image, block size, and calculated Rotation Left Digits (RLD) for each block.

Fault injection attacks (FIA) are a class of active physical attacks, mostly used for malicious purposes such as extraction of cryptographic keys, privilege escalation, attacks on neural network implementations. There are many techniques that can be used to cause the faults in integrated circuits, many of them coming from the area of failure analysis. In this paper we tackle the topic of practicality of FIA. We analyze the most commonly used techniques that can be found in the literature, such as voltage/clock glitching, electromagnetic pulses, lasers, and Rowhammer attacks. To summarize, FIA can be mounted on most commonly used architectures from ARM, Intel, AMD, by utilizing injection devices that are often below the thousand dollar mark. Therefore, we believe these attacks can be considered practical in many scenarios, especially when the attacker can physically access the target device.

In Internet of Things (IoT), cryptography-based security services are widely used to mitigate security threats. However, establishing cryptographic keys between entities in dynamic IoTs is a challenging issue, due to the high mobility of these entities. They may not have established secrets prior to the key establishment, and the key establishment has to be finished in a limited time. Existing solutions either rely on the entities having prior secrets, or have a latency that may not meet the time limit. This paper proposes a new key establishment method that does not use prior secret or trust and has high efficiency. The method, called Trajectory-based Authenticated Key Establishment (TAKE), establishes a shared secret and uses it to derive a pair of symmetric keys, using only real-time trajectory data of a moving entity. The shared secret can also be used for authentication or to establish asymmetric keys. Theoretical analysis and experimental evaluation demonstrate that TAKE can efficiently establish keys with multiple security levels and resist attacks on authentication, confidentiality and integrity. Experiment results show TAKE can distinguish authorised entities and establish keys for them with high reliability, with a true positive rate of 99% and a false positive rate of 0. One key establishment finishes within 200 ms, which is significantly faster than other solutions without using prior secrets.

Transmission and storage of medical data using cloud-based Internet-of-health-systems (IoHS) necessitate important prerequisites, such as secrecy, legitimacy, and integrity. This paper recommends a novel hybrid encryption/decryption scheme that can be applied in e-healthcare, or IoHS, for the protection of medical images. The proposed system explores innovative perturbation algorithms that utilize novel chaotic maps. The proposed perturbation-based data encryption is employed in both rounds of confusion and diffusion to cope the drawbacks of traditional chaos-based confusion and diffusion architectures. Particularly, (i) the new maps parameters and chaotic sequences are used to control the permutation and diffusion properties of the scheme, and (2) the derived properties control pixel shuffling and operations of substitution. Different techniques and tests are used to analyzed the chaotic behaviors of the proposed system, including the bifurcation diagram, Lyapunov exponents, as well as the NIST and DIEHARD tests. Moreover, evaluation using various test images indicated that the proposed cryptosystem is fast, have high efficiency, showed high robustness and protection of medical images, and documented the good ability to withstand a variety of cyber-attacks. Furthermore, quantitative results using benchmark color and greyscale images prove the high security levels, sensitivity, and low residual intelligibility with high quality recovered data of our technique than several typical and state-of-the-art encryption schemes. This has been documented using statistical and security analysis metrics, such as number of pixels change rate (NPCR, 99.814%), unified average changing intensity (UACI, 33.694%), peak signal-to-noise-ratio (PSNR, 7.723), and Shannon entropy (7.998).

This paper identifies vulnerabilities to recently proposed countermeasures to leakage power analysis attacks in FDSOI systems based on the application of a random body bias. The vulnerabilities are analyzed and the relative difficulty to obtain the secret key, once the vulnerabilities are taken into account, are compared to the original proposals. A new countermeasure, based on a new body bias scheme, is then proposed. The new countermeasure is based on the equalization of asymmetries in static power consumption dependent on data being stored in registers implemented in FDSOI technology. The countermeasure’s effectiveness is theoretically established through the development of a power model based on technological parameters, and further reinforced through numerical simulations of a dummy cryptosystem implementing part of an AES encrypting round.

Tensor core is a newly introduced hardware unit in NVIDIA GPU chips that allows matrix multiplication to be computed much faster than in the integer and floating-point units. In this paper, we show that for the first time, tensor core can be used to accelerate state-of-the-art lattice-based cryptosystems. We employed tensor core to speed up polynomial convolution, which is the most time consuming operation in lattice-based cryptosystems. Towards that aim, several parallel algorithms are proposed to allow the tensor core to handle flexible matrix sizes and ephemeral key pairs. Experimental results show that the polynomial convolution computed using the tensor core is at least $2\times $ faster than the version implemented with conventional integer units of the NVIDIA GPU. The proposed tensor-core-based polynomial convolution technique was applied to NTRU, one of the finalists in NIST post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization. It achieved $2.02\times /1.98\times $ (encapsulation) and $1.56\times /1.90\times $ (decapsulation) higher throughput on two parameter sets (ntruhps2048509 and ntruhps2048677), compared to the conventional integer-based implementations on a GPU. In particular, the proposed implementation techniques achieved throughput up to 793651 key encapsulations per second and 505051 decapsulations per second on a RTX2060 GPU. To demonstrate the flexibility of the proposed technique, we extend the implementation to other lattice-based cryptosystems that have a small modulus: LAC and two variant parameter sets in FrodoKEM. Considering that the IoT gateway devices and cloud servers need to handle massive connections from the sensor nodes, the proposed high throughput implementation on GPU is very useful in securing the IoT communication.