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This paper presents a digital readout integrated circuit (DROIC) for small pitch medium-wave infrared (MWIR) starring focal plane arrays (FPAs). To overcome the limited in-pixel resolution of such DROICs, the concept of error shaping is introduced in pulse frequency modulation (PFM)-based pixels. Multiple integration operations are performed in a single frame and the residue charge from each integration phase is retained and injected into the next charge packet. This over-integration routine provides a high pass noise transfer function (NTF) equivalent to what is obtained in a first order sigma delta modulator. The concise structure of a PFM analog-to-digital converter (ADC) lends itself well to such an operation inside the pixel, while consuming low power. Along with a theoretical analysis of the technique, a prototype based on a $16\times 16$ array and sinc decimation filters is developed to demonstrate the performance of the proposed DROIC. With an in-pixel resolution of 5 bits and over-integration ratio (OIR) of 128, 395 noise electrons are demonstrated at full-well fill from the test array fabricated in a 90 nm bulk-CMOS process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an overview for low-power successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). It covers the operation principle, error analysis, and practical design issues. Furthermore, this paper provides a comprehensive survey of state-of-the-art low-power design techniques for every circuit block in the SAR ADC, including comparator, capacitive digital-to-analog converter (DAC), and SAR logic. The goal of this paper is to provide a useful overview to SAR ADC designers who want to improve the energy efficiency targeting low-to-medium speed applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a mixed-signal SRAM-based in-memory computing (IMC) macro for processing binarized neural networks. The IMC macro consists of $128\times 128$ (16K) SRAM-based bitcells. Each bitcell consists of a standard 6T SRAM bitcell, an XNOR-based binary multiplier, and a pseudo-differential voltage-mode driver (i.e., an accumulator unit). Multiply-and-accumulate (MAC) operations between 64 pairs of inputs and weights (stored in the first 64 SRAM bitcells) are performed in 128 rows of the macro, all in parallel. A weight-stationary architecture, which minimizes off-chip memory accesses, effectively reduces energy-hungry data communications. A row-by-row analog-to-digital converter (ADC) based on 32 replica bitcells and a sense amplifier reduces the ADC area overhead and compensates for nonlinearity and variation. The ADC converts the MAC result from each row to an N-bit digital output taking 2N-1 cycles per conversion by sweeping the reference level of 32 replica bitcells. The remaining 32 replica bitcells in the row are utilized for offset calibration. In addition, this paper presents a pseudo-differential voltage-mode accumulator to address issues in the current-mode or single-ended voltage-mode accumulator. A test chip including a 16Kbit SRAM IMC bitcell array is fabricated using a 65nm CMOS technology. The measured energy- and area-efficiency is 741-87TOPS/W with 1-5bit ADC at 0.5V supply and 3.97TOPS/mm2, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a 1.5-GS/s 6-bit single-channel loop-unrolled successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converter (ADC) using speculative capacitive DAC (CDAC) switching control technique. The proposed SAR ADC achieves a high sampling rate by eliminating additional delays in typical loop-unrolled SAR ADCs related to settling time constraints in their CDACs. Specifically, the CDACs are duplicated and controlled in speculative ways so that the CDAC outputs passage to their next values before completing the regeneration operation of comparators, thereby improving timing constraints for successive approximations. The switching power overhead from the CDAC speculation is mitigated by introducing an energy-efficient CDAC control technique that produces desired voltage transients with minimal power overheads. The prototype of the proposed SAR ADC is fabricated in a 28-nm CMOS technology and occupies an active area of 0.0038-mm2. The design consumes 5.8 mW from a 1.2-V supply. The ADC achieves 1.5-GS/s sampling frequency with a 31-dB SNDR at a low input frequency and a 28.6 dB at the Nyquist frequency without applying any offset calibration techniques, achieving the highest sampling frequency among the 6-bit single-channel loop-unrolled SAR ADCs reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review paper presents an overview of readout architectures and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) for 3D-stacked CMOS image sensors (CIS) with their advantages and challenges. Depending on the application requirements, a suitable 3D-stacked readout architecture will be proposed. While most ADCs to date have been reported in planar CIS, this paper ports these designs to a 3D-stacked CIS and compares the different ADC topologies for this 3D-stacked context in terms of noise, speed and power efficiency. The comparison shows that the ramp and incremental ΔΣ (IΔΣ) ADCs can achieve a better overall performance compared to the SAR and cyclic ADCs by a factor of ~3 better for 3D-stacked CIS. In addition, ramp and IΔΣ ADCs can both achieve (very) low fixed-pattern noise values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel all-digital background calibration of timing mismatch for a time-interleaved analog-to-digital converter (TIADC). For two different calibration strategies, the absolute calibration and the relative calibration, the inductive expressions of modulation matrices are derived from the coefficient matrices provided by different estimation methods. Based on the modulation matrix, we develop a digital calibration architecture, which enables the output of TIADC to be modulated firstly before being corrected, so the costly matrix multiplication processing can be avoided. This calibration architecture also enables the estimation process of each channel to be independent and can be executed simultaneously, which accelerates the convergence speed of the timing mismatch. We show the efficiency of the calibration structure by simulations, including examples from the literature. Numerical simulation demonstrates that the convergence speed of the timing mismatch has been improved by at least 27%, compared with the estimation method depending on the specified reference channel. The result of FPGA-based hardware implementation shows that the spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR) is improved by 37.63dB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As new applications impose jitter values in the range of a few tens of femtoseconds, the design of phase-locked loops faces daunting challenges. This paper derives basic relations between the tolerable jitter and the power consumption, predicting severe issues as jitters below 10 fs are sought. The results are also applied to the sampling clocks in analog-to-digital converters and suggest that clock generation may consume a greater power than the converter itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a single-channel two-step voltage-time hybrid domain analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is proposed. To achieve high sampling rate and high accuracy, 3.5-bit voltage domain MDAC and 7-bit high-speed time domain ADC (TD-ADC) are combined into a 10-bit hybrid ADC. In the first stage MDAC, a low-power push-pull amplifier is used to improve settling speed, and 1-bit redundancy is designed for calibration and dither injection. The TD-ADC with selective time domain quantization is implemented by a constant-current voltage to time converter (VTC) array and a direct positive feedback time domain comparator. The proposed VTC array can maintain high linearity with a large input swing in high-speed application. The prototype ADC was fabricated in a 28-nm CMOS process and occupied a core area of 0.074 mm2. Under a 0.95-V power supply, the chip achieves a measured peak SNDR of 53.2 dB and SFDR of 61.7 dB respectively at conversion rate up to 2.5 GS/s. The FOM is 48.2 fJ/conversion-step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many sensor applications, a high-resolution analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is a key block. The use of an incremental delta-sigma ADC (IADC) is often well suited for such applications. While the energy-efficiency of IADCs has improved by several orders of magnitude over the past decade, the implementation of high performance IADCs, especially in battery-powered systems, is still challenging. This paper presents a tutorial review on energy-efficient IADCs and addresses the progress in this area. This paper describes the fundamentals of IADCs and energy-efficient hybrid IADC architectures. Various design techniques for improving the energy-efficiency of the IADCs are described. This paper is intended to serve as a starting point for the development of a new energy-efficient IADC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the quick expansion of signal bandwidth in communication systems, time-interleaved Analog-to-Digital Converters (TI-ADC) provide quick pathway to very high sampling speed. Nonetheless, mismatches among the sub-ADC channels are major performance limiting factors for TI-ADCs. With the scaling of CMOS processes, all-digital background calibration techniques with blind estimation have been actively pursued in recent years to compensate for the mismatches from TI-ADCs. In this paper, a new all-digital background calibration technique is introduced. The technique achieves blind estimation by exploiting the correlation difference between the signal component and the mismatch spurs. This method can process wideband signals and can be implemented with low calibration overhead. The technique is verified with extensive simulations over a 2GS/s 12bit 16-channel ADC. Simulation shows that, with ADC mismatch spurs over −40dBc, the new technique can reliably suppress the spurs to be lower than −80dBc within the duration of about $1.2\times 10^{6}$ samples with a typical wideband OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing) signal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Device mismatch is a key concern for high-resolution data converters. This paper presents a comprehensive study of the error-feedback (EF)-based mismatch error shaping (MES) technique. EF MES overcomes the key challenge of the classic dynamic element matching-based MES whose complexity grows exponentially with the number of bits; however, the prior EF MES comes with the limitations of limited shaping capability and reduced dynamic range. This paper demonstrates how to perform more advanced EF MES for various types of data converters. Moreover, this paper also proposes the use of digital prediction to address the dynamic range loss issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a reconfigurable delta-sigma modulation (DSM) architecture for concurrent multi-band transmission. The reconfigurability in terms of carrier spacing and the number of simultaneous carrier transmission is useful for applications such as carrier aggregation in 5G. This paper uses $4^{th}$ order reconfigurable multi-band DSM (RMB-DSM) such that the zeros of the noise transfer function can be reconfigured to fall at multiple frequencies, where the carriers are being aggregated. The quantization noise between the transmission bands is a critical issue in the case of multi-band transmission. Therefore, a multi-band additional noise shaping (ANS) function is also introduced, which generates notches around each carrier and reduces the noise level between the multiple pass-bands. The proposed scheme has been validated in simulation, as well as in experiment for aggregating up to four 15 MHz long term evolution (LTE) signals with an overall aggregated bandwidth of 60 MHz. Measurement results show a 10-25% improvement in coding efficiency and 15-35 dB improvement in noise level near the operating frequency band using the proposed multi-band augmented noise shaping technique, as compared to the standard DSM. The corresponding improvement of 8% in the overall efficiency is observed by using the proposed multi-band augmented noise shaping technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the absolute jitter performance of digital phase-locked loops and compares the case when either a multi-bit time-to-digital converter with mid-rise characteristic or a bang-bang phase detector is adopted. The linear equivalent model of the PLL and expressions for random-noise and limit-cycle jitter are first derived for the case of a 2-bit time-to-digital converter with a mid-rise characteristic, and the optimal TDC resolution is determined. The analysis, which account for TDC mismatches, shows that, compared to the 1-bit one, the 2-bit time-to-digital converter can substantially reduce the quantization noise in the case of dominant random-walk noise at the TDC input. Moving to the $N_{b}$ -bit midrise TDC case, the quantization noise can be further reduced at the cost of higher complexity and finer time resolution. The choice of $N_{b}=2$ seems to be the best compromise between jitter reduction and complexity increase. Time-domain simulations assess the theoretical framework and demonstrate the validity of the assumptions made throughout the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a linear-mode light detection and ranging (LiDAR) analog front-end architecture with multiplex analog-to-digital converter/time-to-digital converter (ADC/TDC). An added voltage-to-time converter (VTC) and a reused TDC are simultaneously used to implement the ADC and TDC function, thus replacing discrete ADC and TDC, saving hardware cost and reducing power consumption. A three-stage inverter-based transimpedance amplifier (TIA) with ultra-low-power, low-noise and high/low gain mode (long/short range mode) is proposed to reduce its influence to optical signal-to-noise ratios (OSNR). The prototype TIA and ADC/TDC is fabricated in the 65-nm CMOS technology and integrated into the single-line APD-based LiDAR system. The receiver front-end of TIA and ADC/TDC only consumes 12.44-mW. The minimum detection current of the receiver front-end is less than 238 nA with bandwidth of 150MHz for long-range and weak-light detection. LiDAR achieves a measurement range of 60 m with a 70-klx direct sunlight and only 6.16 mW average laser power. Experimental results show that this architecture is suitable for low-cost multi-line integrated LiDAR applications compared to conventional architecture using ADC, TDC, ADC+TDC architecture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents inherently accurate digital calibration of ADC non-linearity, which requires neither absolute accuracy of a signal for calibration nor any modification of ADC core, hence enabling the use of existing ADC IP cores. It only relies on constant attenuation ratio provided by a passive resistive attenuator and hence it is inherently accurate as exemplified by extensive simulations as well as comparison with conventional method. A prototype $0.35\mu \text{m}$ -CMOS cyclic ADC with the on-chip signal generator for calibration has achieved the noise-limited 71.2-dB SNDR after the calibration under the sampling rate of 300 kS/s with 1.0-mW power and 0.087-mm2 chip area. The proposed calibration can be applied to the pipelined and cyclic ADCs with finite-gain non-linear op-amps as well as the SAR ADC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper implements a wide aperture high-resolution true time delay for frequency-uniform beamforming gain in large-scale phased arrays. We propose a baseband discrete-time delay-compensating technique to augment the conventional phase-shift-based analog or hybrid beamformers. A generalized design methodology is first developed to compare delay-compensating analog or hybrid beamforming architecture with their digital counterpart for a given number of antenna elements, modulation bandwidth, ADC dynamic range, and delay resolution. This paper shows that delay-compensating analog or hybrid beamformers are more energy-efficient for high dynamic-range applications compared to true-time-delay digital beamformers. To demonstrate the feasibility of our proposed technique, a four-element analog delay-compensating baseband beamformer in 65-nm CMOS is prototyped. A time-interleaved switched-capacitor array implements the discrete-time delay-compensating beamformer with a wide delay range of 15-ns and 5-ps resolution. Measured power consumption is 47 mW with frequency-uniform array gain over 100-MHz modulated bandwidth, independent of angle of arrival. The proposed delay compensation scheme is scalable to accommodate the delay differences for large antenna arrays with higher range/resolution ENOB compared with prior art. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a novel physically unclonable function (PUF) for security authentication. Instead of using the variation of transistors or PDK provided passive components as entropy source, the parasitic resistance created between metal and via layers is used as the static entropy source. A symmetric bridge configuration consisted with the parasitic resistance creates the necessary voltage difference for comparison. An accurate backend incremental analog-to-digital converter (IADC) is implemented to convert the voltage difference into a digitized value. The operation of the IADC allows to achieve a good native instability. Two different types of layout structures are implemented to create the necessary parasitic resistance and compared. Fabricated in a 65nm process, the prototype PUF achieves a native instability and bit error rate of less than 1.45% and 0.12% with 5000 repeated evaluations. The proposed design shows 0.58%/0.1V and 0.53%/10°C bit error across the voltage and temperature range of 0.9 to 1.4V and 0°C to 85°C, respectively without any stabilization techniques. The distance ratio between intra-die and inter-die Hamming Distance is above $305\times $. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an area-efficient design of a column-parallel second-order digital decimation filter for a $\Sigma \Delta$ analog-to-digital converter-based CMOS image sensor. By using the proposed pre-bitwise-inversion topology having the same mathematical function, the chip area could be curtailed, where the bit-wise-inversion block, required by the correlated-double-sampling, is moved to the front of the adder. Following such a technique as this, more than six inverters and multiplexers can be reduced. This paper also proposes an adder scheme with only 118 transistors to implement the 13-bit dynamic range integrator. Moreover, the number of MSB cells inside the ripple counter is optimized to balance leakage current and active power consumption. Compared with the prior art, the proposed decimation filter core (without registers) can achieve a reduction of about 24% in transistor count. The proposed design is implemented with a 130-nm standard CMOS process. The total chip area of the digital decimation filter is only $4.5\times 145~\mu \text{m}^{2}$ per column, which is less than half area compared against the prior art. According to the post-layout simulation, the maximum operating frequency is 124 MHz, and the total power consumption, including the filter core and 13-bit registers, is less than 6.35 $\mu \text{W}$ under a typical 50-MHz clock frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power consumption is an important limitation in designing analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) used in low-power sensing applications. This paper estimates analytically the power bound of a two-step multi-stage noise-shaping successive-approximation-register incremental ADC (two-step MASH NS-SAR IADC) proposed in our previous work. Our model considers the impacts of thermal noise, mismatch, and CMOS process (minimum feature size in CMOS technologies) on the power bounds of the proposed IADC. The analytic results show that thermal noise and CMOS process requirements determine the power consumption lower bounds in high and low resolutions, respectively. A comparison with the most competitive single-loop delta-sigma (ΔΣ) IADC shows a 3-dB higher theoretical figure-of-merit (FoM) for our proposed IADC when the resolutions are higher than 12-bit. Our proposed systematic analysis can be used to estimate the power bounds of amplifier-based NS-SAR ADCs used in either ΔΣ or incremental mode with multi-stage and multi-step topologies designed in various CMOS technologies. The reported analytic results are confirmed by experimental results of previously reported implementations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)-based multi-Gb/s serial link receivers have gained increasing attention in the backplane community due to the desire for higher I/O throughput, ease of design portability, and flexibility. However, the power dissipation in such receivers is dominated by the ADC. ADCs in serial links employ signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratio (SNDR) and effective-number-of-bit (ENOB) as performance metrics as these are the standard for generic ADC design. This paper studies the use of information-based metrics such as bit-error-rate (BER) to design a BER-optimal ADC (BOA) for serial links. Channel parameters such as the m-clustering value and the threshold non-uniformity metric h_{t} are introduced and employed to quantify the BER improvement achieved by a BOA over a conventional uniform ADC (CUA) in a receiver. Analytical expressions for BER improvement are derived and validated through simulations. A prototype BOA is designed, fabricated and tested in a 1.2 V, 90 nm LP CMOS process to verify the results of this study. BOA's variable-threshold and variable-resolution configurations are implemented via an 8-bit single-core, multiple-output passive digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which incurs an additional power overhead of < 0.1% (approximately 50 \mu\textW). Measurement results show examples in which the BER achieved by the 3-bit BOA receiver is lower by a factor of 10^9 and 10^10, as compared to the 4-bit and 3-bit CUA receivers, respectively, at a data rate of 4-Gb/s and a transmitted signal amplitude of 180 mVppd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Walsh-Hadamard based orthogonal sampling of signals is studied in this paper, and an application of this technique is presented. Using orthogonal sampling, a single analog-to-digital converter (ADC) only is sufficient to perform parallel (simultaneous) recording from the sensors. Furthermore, employing Walsh functions as modulation signals, the required bandwidth of the ADC in the proposed system is equal to the bandwidth of a time-multiplexed ADC in a system with identical number of recording channels. Therefore, the bandwidth of the ADC in the proposed system is effectively employed and shared among all the channels. The efficient usage of the ADC bandwidth leads to saving power at the ADC stage and reducing the data-rate of the output signal compared to state-of-the-art recording systems based on frequency-division multiplexing. This paper presents the orthogonal sampling technique for neural recording in multi-channel recording systems which is implemented with four recording channels using a $0.18~\mu \text{m}$ technology which results in a power consumption of $1.26~\mu \text{W}$ /channel at a 0.8 V supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a new voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)-based 1-1 MASH delta–sigma ADC structure is presented. The proposed architecture does not require any operational transconductance amplifier-based analog integrators or integrating capacitors. Second-order noise shaping is achieved by using a VCO as an integrator in the feedback loop of the first stage and an open-loop VCO quantizer in the second stage. Simple digital circuitry extracts the phase quantization error of the first stage as a pulse signal that is applied to the second stage. The input of the first VCO is a very small amplitude signal, and the input of the second VCO is a two-level PWM signal. Therefore, the VCO non-linearity does not limit the overall ADC performance, mitigating the need for the power hungry linearization methods. The proposed idea was simulated at the transistor level, and the results verify the analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A continuous-time second-order $\Delta \Sigma $ analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is presented in this paper. The proposed ADC is based on a novel architecture and uses current starved ring oscillators as integrators to achieve the second-order noise shaping. The proposed architecture does not require excess loop delay compensation or nonlinearity calibration. Static element mismatch in the multi-bit current digital-to-analog converter is high-pass shaped by intrinsic data-weighted averaging. Detailed analysis and insights on the various trade-offs involved in the design of the proposed ADC are presented in this paper. A prototype ADC is implemented in 65-nm CMOS and achieves 64.2-dB SNDR at a bandwidth of 2.5 MHz and a Schreier FoM of 158.2 dB. The ADC operates at 205 MHz and consumes 1 mW of power. The measured power supply rejection ratio is 56.2 dB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a highly linear BiCMOS sample and hold amplifier (SHA) providing 2.8-GS/s intermediate frequency (IF) sampling for a 1-GHz input bandwidth spanning from 1.5 to 2.5 GHz. A single-transistor hold-mode feedthrough cancellation technique is implemented to remove distortion resulting from the nonlinear parasitic capacitance at the sampling node. The SHA is designed in a mainstream 130-nm BiCMOS technology using SiGe heterojunction bipolar transistors to buffer and sample the wideband input. The proposed SHA enables monolithic integration with a high-speed analog-to-digital converter core to realize a high-performance converter solution. This independent sampling front end occupies a core chip area of 0.6 mm2 and consumes an average power of 1.26 W. The SHA is a pseudo-differential open-loop design that includes two cascaded track-and-hold amplifiers, a high-speed clock driver, and externally adjustable current mirror biases. The high-speed clock drivers and buffers add 170 mW to the total power consumption. The measurements of the fabricated SHA show a 10-bit effective resolution across the 1-GHz IF bandwidth and < −61-dBc HD2 and HD3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a low-power and area efficient 10-bit successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital (ADC) with a hybrid capacitive-MOS consisting of a 7-bit MSB capacitive DAC (CDAC) and a 3-bit LSB MOS DAC (MDAC), which consumes less power and much smaller chip area than a pure CDAC. Instead of using a string of eight MOS transistors to control one unit capacitor, the 3-bit LSB MDAC is realized by a MOS string with four native MOS transistors to control two unit capacitors, which allows higher voltage drop and more reliable operation for each unit MOS. The overall energy consumption of the proposed CAP-MOS DAC is reduced by 56.2% compared to a Vcm-based 10-bit pure CDAC with the same unit capacitance. Under the sampling rate of 200 kS/s, the prototype 10-bit SAR ADC implemented in a 0.18- ${\mu }\text{m}$ CMOS technology achieves a signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratio / spurious-free dynamic range of 56.91 /68.56 dB at 99-kHz input under a 0.6-V power-supply, while consumes $1.76~{\mu }\text{W}$ at 200 kS/s for a figure of merit of 15.38 fJ/step. The peak DNL and INL are +0.27/−0.21 LSB and +0.43/−0.45 LSB, respectively. The ADC occupies a small active area of 0.097 mm2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a new self-calibration method for vector-sum phase shifters (PS) to compensate for process variations and achieve reconfigurable operating frequency. The calibration system generates a look-up table for the control voltages of the variable-gain amplifiers of the PS to minimize the rms phase error at a frequency of interest. The calibration system consists of a coupled-line coupler, an amplifier, a power detector (PD), an analog-to-digital converter, and a data processing unit. In this calibration method, first, the amplitudes of IQ vectors are swept and their powers are measured. Then, phase errors are calculated from these power measurements using the cosine formula. Finally, the vector pairs providing the least phase error are chosen for each desired phase shift. The practicality of the proposed system is demonstrated by realizing a self-calibrated $X$ -band 7-b PS fabricated in IHP 0.25- $\mu \text{m}$ SiGe BiCMOS technology, including the on-chip coupler, amplifier, and PD. The calibration system improves the rms phase error by at least 1°, does not degrade the rms gain error, and increases the insertion loss by 1.6 dB. The self-calibrated PS achieves a 2° rms phase error across $X$ -band frequencies. The overall chip size is 2.6 mm2. The power consumption of the PS and the overall system are 110 and 233 mW, respectively. This built-in calibration system mitigates process variation effects, and the performance of the PS can be optimized for any center frequency across $X$ -band. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to its high resolution, small silicon area, and reasonable conversion rate, extended counting analog to digital conversion (EC-ADC) has become a competitive candidate for application in the readout circuits of high accuracy sensors. In this paper, an EC-ADC for large scale sensor arrays is proposed. At the system level, a double-sampling configuration for incremental \Sigma\Delta modulators is proposed. By applying this configuration, the clock frequency of EC-ADC can be almost halved for the same conversion accuracy and rate. At the circuit level, the contribution of class-AB operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) structure to the low power design is analyzed and a class-AB OTA applicable for EC-ADC is developed. The proposed architecture has been implemented using a commercial 0.18 \mum CMOS technology. Measured results show that a power consumption of less than 77 \muW can be achieved at the conversion rate of 51.2 Ksamples/s and 12.2-bit accuracy respectively. The converter core occupies 0.044 mm^2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a statistics-based digital background calibration technique for pipelined analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) is presented. This technique employs the residue voltage probability distribution to continuously estimate and digitally eliminate the conversion errors resulted from the residue amplifier gain error and third-order nonlinearity. In order to remove the conversion errors, the proposed method evaluates and corrects the digitized residue probability distribution exploiting a two-level pseudorandom-noise sequence. Behavioral simulation results are provided for a 12-bit pipelined ADC architecture to validate the effectiveness of this scheme. The required number of conversions for convergence is approximately $5\times 10^{6}$. With calibration, the signal-to-noise and distortion ratio is improved from 49.9 to 70.9 dB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incremental analog-to-digital-converters (IADCs) are variants of $\triangle \Sigma $ ADCs, which have been increasingly used for low-power sensory applications in recent years. Most IADC applications require high resolution and high energy efficiency. In this paper, we present a systematic analysis of IADCs. We derive analytical design equations for practical IADC designs. Process limitations are included in the model as well. The equations are verified with a 14-bit second-order IADC design in a 0.18- $\mu \text{m}$ process. With the design equations, the theoretical energy efficiency bound is derived for IADCs. The efficiency bound is compared with previously reported IADC designs. It is found that the derived bound matches existing designs well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a calibration scheme that can be used to correct the inter-stage gain error in two-stage analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). We measure the static nonlinearity at the raw ADC outputs and compensate it through a feedback path to adjust the gain in the analog domain, which avoids the dynamic range loss in the conventional pure digital calibrations. The proposed scheme detects the error via the missing-code-occurrence probability (MCOP), which is insensitive to the comparator offset and has better immunity to its noise. Besides the gain error, we discuss other DAC linearity issues, such as the implementations of the reference buffer and the low-dropout (LDO) regulator. To verify the MCOP calibration, we design a 12-bit successive-approximation-register ADC, employing the bridge-DAC, in 65-nm CMOS. We integrate the ADC operating at 100 MS/s with the MCOP calibration, the reference buffers, and the LDO. The measurement results demonstrate the linearity enhancement after the proposed calibration, where we improve the signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratio to 61.38 dB, leading to a FoM of 16.7 fJ/conversion step at the Nyquist input frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a single-coarse dual-fine architecture that improves energy-efficiency of pipelined-SAR analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). A coarse and fast sub-ADC is used to quantize the most significant bits (MSBs), which are encoded with a proposed residue transformation method to control the residue generation of the first stages in two fine channels. The residue voltages generate on the capacitive digital-to-analog converters (C-DACs) of split fine channels directly without successive approximation processes. Therefore, the conversion rate is increased and the power is reduced. A shuffle mechanism is introduced into split-ADC based digital background calibration to avoid the divergence of the conventional algorithm in the proposed architecture. A high-energy-efficiency dynamic amplifier is also introduced as the residue amplifier. A 14-bit 60-MS/s ADC is prototyped in a 28-nm CMOS process. The digital calibration engine operates under 0.9-V supply, other parts of the ADC core operate under 1.05-V supply. The ADC core consumes 4.26 mW. Measurement results show that the calibration improved the signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SNDR) and spur-free dynamic range (SFDR) dramatically, the calibrated ADC achieves SNDR and SFDR of 66.9 dB and of 91.0 dB respectively, translating to a Schreier FoM of 165.4 dB and a Walden FoM of 39.3 fJ/conversion-step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In-memory computing (IMC) is an effective solution for energy-efficient artificial intelligence applications. Analog IMC amortizes the power consumption of multiple sensing amplifiers with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and simultaneously completes the calculation of multi-line data with a high parallelism degree. Based on a universal one-transistor one-magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) spin transfer torque magnetic RAM (STT-MRAM) cell, this paper demonstrates a novel tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) ratio magnifying method to realize analog IMC. Previous concerns including low TMR ratio and analog calculation nonlinearity are addressed using device-circuit interaction. The TMR is magnified $7500\times $ using a latch structure in combination with the device. Peripheral circuits are minimally modified to enable in-memory matrix-vector multiplication. A current mirror with a feedback structure is implemented to enhance analog computing linearity and calculation accuracy. The proposed design maximumly supports 1024 2-bit input and 1-bit weight multiply-and-accumulate (MAC) computations simultaneously. The proposal is simulated using the 28-nm CMOS process and MTJ compact model. The integral nonlinearity is reduced by 57.6% compared with the conventional structure. 9.47-25.4 TOPS/W is realized with 2-bit input, 1-bit weight, and 4-bit output convolution neural network (CNN). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a 46 nF/10 $\text{M}\Omega $ -range, digital-intensive, reconfigurable RC-to-digital converter (R2CDC) that can readout multiple C and R sensors in a time-interleaved fashion. Ratio-metric conversion using swing-boosted period-modulation (SB-PM) front-end by the R2CDC results in 114 aFrms/ $0.37 \Omega _{\text {rms}}$ resolutions and a worst-case temperature-drift of 64.2 ppm/°C over −40 to 125°C. Femto-farad capacitances can be sensed with a relative code-deviation less than 0.16 % even when parasitics vary 30 times the baseline. Implemented in a $0.18 ~\mu \text{m}$ standard CMOS process, the R2CDC consumes 140 $\mu \text{A}$ from a 1 V supply, occupying an active area of $0.175 ~\mu \text{m} ^{\mathrm{ 2}}$. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces the utilization of two different input-referred offset voltage correction methods applied to multiple amplifiers within a front-end sensing circuit of a buck regulator for the first time. The multi-amplifier system under investigation contains an instrumentation amplifier consisting of three folded cascode stages and an additional amplifier configured as a unity-gain buffer for a reference voltage. The first method in this work alleviates voltage offsets in this 4-amplifier system based on a shared auxiliary amplifier correction circuit that switches between different target amplifiers; whereas the second method applies a chopping-based auto-zero procedure to cancel the input-referred offset voltage of the same amplifiers. Since the instrumentation amplifier is designed for feedback sensing in integrated power management applications, it has a relatively high bandwidth requirement. For this reason, the chopping technique does not involve a low-pass or band-pass filter. Instead, a successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converter is used to sense the output. Measurements of the amplifiers fabricated in a 130nm CMOS technology demonstrate that the auxiliary auto-zero offset cancellation method leads to lower input-referred offset voltage standard deviation ($\sigma = 1.31\,\,\mu \text{V}$) compared to the chopping technique ($\sigma = 184.67\,\,\mu \text{V}$), and that the die area requirement and power consumption with the auxiliary amplifier-based offset cancellation (0.105 mm2, 1.32 mW) are lower than with the chopping method (0.25 mm2, 1.72 mW). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the design of ring oscillator-based ADCs, little has been reported on how to optimally co-design the readout scheme and the ring oscillator core towards optimal energy efficiency. This paper describes a methodology to find this optimum for a target SQNR and signal bandwidth, for the case of 1st-order quantization noise shaping. In short, starting from initial assumptions on the VCO, the readout optimization boils down to finding the best VCO frequency. From this, the number of readout phases, the sampling frequency of the readout and the number of bits in the quantizers are derived. Then, it is explained how to adjust the VCO core toward the corresponding optimal VCO configuration. This is discussed for the case of a current-controlled ring oscillator, indicating the main constraints that define the design space for such a VCO optimization. If the actual VCO configuration is bounded by practical constraints, this approach can be re-iterated where a new readout optimization is performed taking these constraints into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a time-interleaved analog-to-digital converter mismatch calibration, which can be adapted to any interleaving factor and calibrate offset, gain, time skew and bandwidth mismatches. Moreover, the proposed scheme utilizes a non-return-to-zero pilot signal, avoiding the high-resolution requirements of sinusoidal generators. In addition, there are no multiplications in the detection path in contrast with the state-of-the-art approaches. Consequently, the proposed calibration presents the smallest complexity in terms of hardware requirements compared to previous work (to the author’s knowledge). Therefore, the proposed calibration can be made with the smallest area and power consumption. Numerical simulations show an SNDR improvement of 49.52 dB for a 12-bit 4-channel TI-ADC and an SNDR improvement of 29.64 dB for an 8-bit 32-channel TI-ADC when random mismatches are applied. The measurement results show an SNDR improvement of 24.68 dB for a 3.6 GS/s 2-channel TI-ADC experimental board. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a wide bandwidth inverter-based continuous time sigma delta (CTSD) analog-to-digital converter (ADC) with a latency-free calibration to suppress the nonlinearity originating from the feedback digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The modulator in the ADC uses a fourth-order architecture with 4-bit quantization. To compensate the excess loop delay (ELD), the proportional-integrating element (PI-element) is employed in the loop filter where the problem of no real solution in conventional PI-element compensation method is solved. In addition, the two-stage inverter-based amplifiers are used in the loop filter to improve power efficiency. To suppress nonlinearity of the 4-bit DAC, a background calibration method based on modified quantizer is proposed which would not introduce additional latency thus ensuring stability of the modulator. The CTSD ADC achieves 64.6 dB SNDR and 71.2 dB SFDR over a 75 MHz signal bandwidth before calibration, and the SNDR and the SFDR can be improved to 67.3 dB and 82.3 dB respectively after calibration. The ADC consumes 38 mW from supply voltages of 1.1/1.8 V with an active area of 0.675 mm2 in 40 nm CMOS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a 12 bit 2.5 bit/cycle SAR-based pipeline ADC employing a self-bias gain boosting amplifier. The single-stage amplifier achieves a low-frequency gain of 37 dB, while consuming 1.3 mW of power consumption with 1.3 V of analog power supply. A 2.5 bit/cycle SAR ADC realizes as the sub-ADC in each stage, and reduces both power consumption and silicon area. A two-channel sampling architecture is employed to double the sampling rate and thereby maximize circuit efficiency. A digital calibration technique is used to reduce non-linearity and mismatches due to the RDAC, as well as gain error and offset of the open-loop residue amplifier. The prototype ADC was fabricated in TSMC 40-nm technology, and consumes 10.71 mW with 1.1 V / 1.3 V digital / analog power supplies. When operating at 125 MS/s, the ADC achieves an SFDR of 66.59 dB before calibration and 80.3 dB after calibration when measured at Nyquist frequency. The experimental results show a Walden FoM of 101 fJ/c.-s. before calibration and 47 fJ/c.-s. after calibration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the use of the body terminal of MOS transistors to improve the linearity of some key circuits used to implement analog and mixed-signal circuits integrated in Fully Depleted Silicon on Insulator (FD-SOI) CMOS. This technology allows to increase the body factor with respect to conventional (bulk) CMOS processes. This effect is analyzed in basic analog building blocks – such as switches, simple-stage transconductors and Voltage-Controlled Ring Oscillators (VCROs). Approximated expressions are derived for the nonlinear characteristics and harmonic distortion of some of these circuits. As an application, transistor-level simulations of two VCRO-based ΣΔ modulators designed in a 28-nm FD-SOI CMOS technology are shown in order to demonstrate the benefits of the presented techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a process, voltage, and temperature (PVT)-insensitive dynamic amplifier (DA) with gain enhancement for a pipelined successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The gain shift due to temperature and process variation is attenuated through the counteraction of input transconductance and delay-based integration time. Furthermore, based on charge conservation, a gain-folding technique is proposed to improve the gain limit of conventional DA, tripling the gain amplitude. The proposed DA is incorporated in a design of a 12-bit 100 MS/s SAR ADC. In 65 nm CMOS process, at 100 MS/s, the prototype ADC achieves an SNDR (signal-to-noise plus distortion ratio) of 65.7 dB and a Walden FoM of 12.06 fJ/conversion-step for a near-Nyquist input. The power dissipation is less than 1.9 mW. No more than 1.65 dB SNDR variations are obtained for supply voltage varying from 1.15 to 1.25 V and temperature varying from −20 °C to 125 °C with various process corners, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a multi-mode, dynamically zooming analog to digital converter (ADC). The architecture is based on a 5b interpolating flash ADC as the zooming unit and a passive discrete-time $\Delta \Sigma $ modulator as the fine conversion unit. The proposed ADC provides a dynamic zooming technique, employing an interpolating zooming front-end. The modulator covers between 0.1 MHz and 10 MHz signal bandwidth which makes it suitable for cellular applications including 4G radio systems. By reconfiguring the OSR, bias current, and component parameters, optimal power consumption can be achieved for every mode. The ADC is implemented in $0.13~\mu \text{m}$ CMOS technology and it achieves an SNDR of 83/75.7/73.2/67 dB for 0.1/1.92/5/10MHz bandwidth with 1.3/4.7/8.1/10.3mW power consumption from a 1.2 V supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the era of Artificial Intelligence (AI), bio-inspired perceptual computing system design brings favorable opportunities, while still facing considerable challenges in the meantime. Especially for tasks of image recognition in power-limited vision-based Internet of Things (IoT) devices, energy constraints due to the end of Dennard scaling limit the performance of Neural Network (NN) algorithms on popular digital platforms, which would not reach the energy efficiency requirement for embedded AI applications. In this paper, a processing near sensor architecture in mixed-signal domain with CMOS Image Sensor (CIS) of convolutional-kernel-readout method is proposed. Visual data is collected from a smart CIS, which can realize maximum $5 \times 5$ kernel-readout with minimum one slide step for convolutional operations. The outputs of CIS are directly processed by analog processing units locating near CIS without the constraint of digital clock and bottleneck of Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC). By analyzing the effects of analog noise on classification accuracy, we further evaluate the fault-tolerance of the system to circuit noise and the device imperfection, such as mismatch and process variation. A mixed-signal visual perception chip is fabricated with a $32\times32$ image sensor and a Binarized Neural Network (BNN) processing array integrated with SMIC 180nm standard CMOS mixed-signal process. Measurement results show up to 545.4 GOPS/W energy efficiency with 1.8mW power consumption taking the advantages of ADC-free processing architecture. This work provides a promising alternative for low-power vision-based IoT intelligent applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a multirate predictive successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The main objective is to introduce digital frameworks for resolving the weaknesses of the previous predictive schemes in the context of the SAR ADC. The proposed SAR ADC compensates for the capacitive element mismatches, extends the input signal frequency using an adaptive digital predictive machine (ADPM), and relaxes the speed requirement through multirate implementation of the ADPM. As a consequence, the achievable sampling-rate can also be improved by optimizing the capacitors according to the thermal noise requirement. Behavioral simulation results, based on the Monte Carlo method, are provided for a 12-bit SAR ADC to verify the usefulness of the proposed approach. The simulation results indicate that the means of the spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR) and the signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SNDR) are 82.3 and 69.1 dB, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a power efficient discrete-time (DT) multi-stage noise-shaping (MASH) delta–sigma analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in $0.18~\mu \text{m}$ CMOS process for wide band applications. A noise-coupled voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)-based quantizer is used to achieve second or higher order of noise shaping. This structure is power and area efficient as well as simple to implement, since it consists mostly of digital blocks. A 2–2 MASH modulator has been implemented by employing the NC-VCO-based quantizer as the second stage. This helps to overcome the VCO nonlinearity issue, since it only processes the quantization error of the first stage, and improve the dynamic range (DR). The first stage is implemented as a second-order modulator in modified feedback (CIFB) architecture. It consists of two integrators and a 4-bit quantizer. For enhanced power efficiency, opamp sharing is used between the second integrator of the first stage and the adder of second stage. The adder is used to extract the quantization error and also to implement the second stage. The prototype ADC achieves a peak SNDR and SNR of 77.9 and 79.1 dB, respectively, over a 10-MHz bandwidth with a 160-MHz sampling rate. The total power consumption including output buffers, is 19.6 mW from 1.8 V/1.5 V supplies, resulting in Walden and Schreier figures-of-merit of 152 fJ/Conv and 168 dB, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a discrete time 2-1 MASH Delta-Sigma ( $\Delta \Sigma )$ modulator with multirate opamp sharing for analog-to-digital converters, targeting the optimization of power efficiency in active blocks, such as opamps and quantizers. Through the allocation of different settling times to the opamps and by adopting the multirate technique, the power of the shared opamps is utilized more efficiently, and the 4-b successive approximation register quantizer and the data weighted averaging block in the first stage enjoy additional operation time. Moreover, a detailed analysis and related simulations are presented to validate the enhanced opamp power efficiency in the proposed sharing scheme. The 65-nm CMOS experimental chip running at multirate 120/240 MHz achieves a mean signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SNDR) of 77.1 dB for a 5-MHz bandwidth, consuming 4.2 mW from a 1.2 V supply and occupying 0.066-mm2 core area. It exhibits a Walden figure of merit (FoM) of 69.7 fJ/conv-step and a Schreier FoM of 167.9 dB based on SNDR. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper presents signal-independent background calibration for timing errors in time-interleaved ADCs, using a random ramp-based calibration signal. A prototype 10-b 500-MS/s 4-channel ADC was fabricated in 40-nm CMOS. With the proposed timing calibration, the SNDR is 50.1 dB at Nyquist while consuming 6.2 mW, giving a figure of merit (FoM) of 48.4 fJ/step. Freezing the calibration after convergence improves the SNDR to 51 dB and reduces the power dissipation to 5.8 mW as well as the FoM to 39.8 fJ/step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSOs) conjugate high performance with large number of features and flexibility. The basic structure, based on fast Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and memory, is augmented with several components for channel matching and bandwidth improvement, and processors that provide visualization, frequency processing, jitter and stability measurement, etc. Unfortunately, fine resolution in sample rate selection is not available, such that for several applications the user must run complex measurement procedures that require data download and offline processing. The paper proposes a dedicated digital circuit that offers fine control of the time-base by real time downsampling the input stream at an almost arbitrary sampling rate. The proposed circuit implements a series of operations involving real-time data filtering, defragmentation and packing, which are not considered by alternative approaches, like those based on polyphase filters, that offer very limited choices for the sampling rate. The circuit is designed to work in conjunction with the highest performance DSOs that use a multichannel architecture. Design rules for circuit design are provided together with implementation results in 14nm FinFET technology. When designed for an architecture with 64 channels with 8bit input samples the circuit works in real time with a sampling rate of 220 GSps running at 3.42 GHz, with a silicon footprint of 0.17 mm2 and a power dissipation of 0.85W. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Time-interleaved analog-to-digital converters can significantly increase system sampling rate, but channel mismatches, such as gain mismatch, offset mismatch and phase mismatch, can cause great error in the system. The problem of broadband mismatches calibration for multichannel time-interleaved analog-to-digital converters system will be discussed in this paper by using the foreground calibration technique. Essentially, the calibration can be divided into two steps: First, all the mismatches between analog input and digital output will be measured by taking a linear frequency modulated signal as the reference signal; Next, a set of finite-impulse response filters will be calculated based on those mismatches to generate frequency dependent mismatches compensation, so that the signal to noise and distortion ratio, and spurious-free dynamic range will not be limited by the channel mismatches. There are two advantages of the proposed method when compared with previous methods. The complexity of error estimation can be reduced dramatically and high precision error estimation can also be achieved. In order to evaluate the performance, a series of experiments were conducted in a two-channel time-interleaved analog-to-digital converter system. The results show that the spurious-free dynamic range is improved by more than 10dB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) dedicated to neural recording systems. By using two continuous-time incremental sigma-delta ADCs in a pipeline configuration, the proposed ADC can achieve high-resolution without sacrificing the conversion rate. This two-step architecture is also power-efficient, as the resolution requirement for the incremental sigma-delta ADC in each step is significantly relaxed. To further enhance the power efficiency, a class-AB output stage and a dynamic summing comparator are used to implement the sigma-delta modulators. A prototype chip, designed and fabricated in a standard 0.18 \mum CMOS process, validates the proposed ADC architecture. Measurement results show that the ADC achieves a peak signal-to-noise-plus-distortion ratio of 75.9 dB over a 4 kHz bandwidth; the power consumption is 34.8 \muW, which corresponds to a figure-of-merit of 0.85 pJ/conv. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harmonic-reject mixers (HRM) are commonly used in wideband receivers to suppress the effects of spurious harmonic interferers. Both analog and digital HRMs have been proposed in the literature. In existing works, the local oscillator (LO) phases are assumed to be equally spaced. When viewed as a multiuser access system, the drawback of equally-spaced LO phases is that the signature vectors of the desired signal and some harmonic interferers become aligned, limiting the number of interferers that can be attenuated. In this paper, a digital HRM with non-uniform phase spacing that can suppress additional harmonics while being robust to gain and phase mismatches is described. This paper also presents a low-complexity, adaptive and robust digital HRM receiver that enables the fewest LOs and analog-to-digital converters necessary depending on the interference environment for low power. The performance of the adaptive non-uniformly spaced HRM is shown to be significantly superior to existing HRMs with equal LO phase spacing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]