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Organisms face variation in energy demand throughout a life cycle. In response, they make reversible phenotypic changes in behavior, physiology, and morphology; collectively, this is called phenotypic flexibility. While phenotypic flexibility is a well-documented organismal response to variation in energetic demand, most studies are limited by two time-point comparisons. Phenotypic flexibility is relatively under-studied throughout seasons and among life-cycle events. Thus, my research questions address phenotypic flexibility in response to variation in energetic demand throughout a summer active season, relative to the impacts of intrinsic and extrinsic demands in a small, insectivorous bat. I studied a population Tadarida brasiliensis located in a maternity colony in Frio Cave in Uvalde county, Texas. These bats migrate north from Mexico to the southern portion of the United States for the summer active season, including reproduction. As flying, small-bodied, mammalian endotherms, temperate insectivorous bats incur relatively high energy demands compared to other organisms. During the summer active season, there are two main energetically demanding periods: reproduction (particularly lactation), and migration. To measure phenotypic flexibility, I examined variation in body composition (body mass, wet lean mass, individual organ masses) and foraging activity (via plasma metabolite analysis). I compared these data to known periods of high and low intrinsic energy demand through reproduction, and with extrinsic factors (e.g., local weather conditions). I found evidence that T. brasiliensis respond to variation in energetic demand throughout the season, and further, intrinsic demands may be a larger contributor to phenotypic change in this study system. This thesis contributes to the field of physiological ecology by validating technology that makes physiological techniques more accessible in the field, and further informing organismal response to changing intrinsic and extrinsic environmental energetic challenges.

Cave-roosting bat populations are declining globally, with human disturbance at caves identified as the leading cause for these declines. Cave-roosting bats face a multitude of human pressures, namely, hunting, cave tourism and exploitation of cave resources (e.g., harvesting of guano for fertilizer and cave swiftlet nests for use in soups), disturb roosting bats and limestone mining results in the complete destruction of caves. Effects of cave disturbances are exacerbated by logging activities that fragment and destroy forested habitats, since many cave-roosting species are dependent upon intact forests as suitable foraging sites. Over a quarter of all bat species are dependent upon caves for protection from inclement weather and predators and as a stable environment to rear their young. As a result, cave-roosting bats exhibit strong roost fidelity, and cave disturbance is consequently an inescapable stressor for many bat species. Such threats jeopardize the viability of cave-dependent bats. Furthermore, drastic shifts in abundance and composition of cave-roosting bat assemblages could have a cascading effect on other cave-dependent wildlife. As keystone species, bats provide vital ecological services in cave ecosystems; the deposition of guano by aggregations of roosting bats is the primary energy source in cave ecosystems. Therefore, the aim of my dissertation is to assess the response of cave-roosting bats to increasingly human-dominated landscapes in order to make empirically based recommendations to promote the conservation of cave-roosting bats. My goals were to identify environmental and human disturbance drivers that influence cave-roosting bats at multiple ecological levels, specifically assemblage, species and population levels, on Bohol Island in the central Philippines. With 35 bat species, Bohol Island is a biodiversity hotspot in the Philippines. In an effort to prioritize caves to conserve cave-roosting bat assemblages, I identified environmental and human disturbance factors that serve as correlates of assemblage diversity and species composition in caves. My results allowed for the development of a systematic approach for the identification of priority caves using rapid cave surveys and freely available open-source data. I demonstrate that assemblage-level metrics can mask the response of individual species to human disturbance. My results show the need to consider species-specific responses when making management decisions, and to focus on species with greatest sensitivity when planning conservation interventions. To understand the underlying mechanisms by which individual species respond to cave disturbance, I assessed the physiological response of Hipposideros diadema (Diadem roundleaf bat), a common cave-roosting bat species found throughout Southeast Asia, to a disturbance gradient on Bohol Island. My results are contradictory to the findings of most studies of human disturbance on wildlife health, and indicate that increasing human disturbance was correlated with a decreased physiological response, specifically lower neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios and ectoparasite loads. Results are summarized for the Department of Natural Resources of the Philippines to assist with meeting mandates set forth in the National Caves and Cave Resources Management and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9072) and to promote bat conservation in the Philippines.

Desert anurans in the Sonoran Desert have to find breeding sites that last long enough to support larvae development and metamorphosis. However, this becomes challenging with rising temperatures; droughts will increase and water resources become scarce. Furthermore, the water in some of these breeding sites come under suspicion to contain mortal ammonia concentration for amphibians. This thesis aims to increase our understanding of adult amphibian use of these waters in the Sonoran Desert. In my first chapter, I reported on the current climate conditions in the Sonoran Desert and how the climate is projected to change in this hot and dry desert. I introduced two important breeding sites for desert anurans in the Sonoran Desert: tinajas and anthropogenic catchments, and the reported high ammonia concentrations in catchments. I also review how desert anurans might select available breeding habitats, introduce three models of habitat selection, and review how these habitats can be determined by different habitat quality variables. Last, I review male quality in relation to male fitness and advertisement calls. In chapter 2, I determine breeding habitat use of three desert anuran species, Red-spotted Toad (Anaxyrus punctatus), Couch’s Spadefoot (Scaphiopus couchii), and Sonoran Desert Toad (Incilius alvarius), during their breeding season in 2012 in the Sonoran Desert. I test habitat selection models to determine if habitat quality (physical and chemical properties of the breeding sites) or anuran male quality influence the selection of breeding sites. I also tested how amphibian presence and activity was related to air temperature and relative humidity to determine species-specific requirements for these weather variables. These species did not show signs of habitat selection, and called at waters that contain lethal ammonia concentrations. Furthermore, all species occurred within a specific temperature range and minimum humidity. Based on these findings, in chapter 3, I summarized and highlighted the results of my study project, provided management recommendations and suggested further work.

Global climate change models for desert ecosystems not only predict an increase in mean temperatures but also an increase in the daily low temperatures resulting in a decrease in daily temperature range (DTR). While soil moisture and antecedent precipitation regimes are considered in current models for desert ecosystem functioning, these models are limited in understanding the role of temperature and seasonal variability, specifically the daily temperature range and the response of soil microbial communities to available soil moisture during different times of the year. This study seeks to utilize new automated soil gas monitoring technology and solar shading, altering the DTR by increasing nightly low temperatures and decreasing daily high temperatures, to measure soil microbial community respiration activity in response to reduced DTR compared with unaltered soil temperature dynamics in control plots. The research was conducted in a creosotebush bajada in the Chihuahuan Desert in Big Bend National Park. Over the course of a year of with observations beginning in November 2012 and ending in December 2013, the soil monitoring equipment recorded hourly temperatures and CO2 emissions from the top 15 cm of soil. Soil sampling over the study period was conducted to determine levels of microbial biomass of carbon (MBC), fungal substrate activity (FSA), fungal substrate richness (FSR), extractable soil ammonia (NH4-N) and nitrate (NO3-N), extractable phosphorus (P), available potassium (K), soil organic matter (SOM), and soil pH. For some of the experimental parameters there was no significant difference between treatments on individual sampling dates, but there was an observed difference between treatment groups for some parameters across the whole time period of the study. Reduced DTR plots experienced an increase 7.7% in CO2 flux, an increase of 28.9% in MBC, a 32% increase in FSA, and a 26% increase in FSR. These results indicate that in addition to the pattern of rain events and levels of soil moisture, soil microbial activity in arid and semi-arid regions is governed in some way by soil temperatures over the day. Reductions in DTRsoil appear to ultimately allow soil microbial communities to respond to rain events more robustly than previously predicated by moisture responses alone. Thus, DTRsoil changes the magnitude of the response but not the overall seasonal timing of the response. Even when soil moisture is optimal, microbial activity as measured by CO2 efflux was reduced when DTR soil was high. The incorporation of DTR response in microbial communities in desert soils will help to fully understand and predict the impact of further climate change in regions that are already sensitive to variable climate and precipitation.

Bats are important components of forested ecosystems. Most bat species depend on forest habitats for roosting or foraging, and are also beneficial to these forests (e.g., insect suppression). In the American Southwest, large and unprecedented wildfires are occurring more frequently as a result of anthropogenic disturbances. Wildfires weaken trees and stimulate flowering plant growth, attracting potential prey insects for bats. They also create roost sites and thin cluttered forests. However, severe wildfires may not provide these benefits for bats due to an increased impact on the trees and soil. The relationships between bats and forest fires are still not well understood. In particular, we have a limited knowledge of how large and severe wildfires may influence bats. The focus of this study is to determine how bat activity is influenced by wildfire, and more specifically, how burn severity and vegetation type affects activity levels in the years immediately post-fire, at a landscape-level scale. Acoustic surveys were conducted at the Valles Caldera National Preserve, New Mexico from June-October in 2013 and May-July in 2014 at four study sites within each of three treatments: unburned, the Las Conchas Wildfire (2011), and the Thompson Ridge Wildfire (2013). Six sites were randomly surveyed each night using SM2Bat+ Song Meters. The number of files recorded containing bat calls was determined for each study site for each night it was surveyed. Mean nightly bat activity levels for each site were correlated with proportions of burn severities and vegetation types around each study site using a series of buffers. Bats were found to be more active in burned areas than in unburned areas. Within burned areas, activity levels were higher in areas that burned at lower severities, and lower in those that burned at higher severities. Bats also tended to be less active in particular vegetation types, while being more active in others. A mosaic of burn severities and vegetation types across the landscape appears to be most beneficial for bats. These patterns are hypothesized to be a result of increased prey availability, but further analyses are needed to better understand these relationships.

With growing societal concerns regarding conventional energy sources like oil and natural gas, wind energy has become the dominate alternative energy source in North America and continued development is projected in both the U.S. and Canada. Wind turbines have contributed to bird and bat fatalities across North America. In certain locations, such as the forested northeast, bat fatalities have been especially high. As a result, conservationists are concerned about cumulative population-level impacts of bat fatalities at wind facilities should trends in fatality continue without mitigation. Studies have assessed operational mitigation, which raises the cut-in speed of turbines, at reducing bat fatalities only in relation to wind speed. Bat activity varies with environmental conditions like temperature, precipitation, and time of day. As such, researches have called for the need to investigate incorporating other weather variables into the design in order to fine-tune it. With current trends in bat fatalities and the exponential growth of wind installations across North America, immediate actions to reduce turbine-related bat fatalities is imperative to avoid potentially unrecoverable cumulative population-level impacts. In addition, further studies to investigate fatality estimates and patterns in regions across North America are needed to adequately assess impacts to bird and bat populations and inform and refine mitigation efforts. My objectives of this study were to: 1) estimate bird and bat fatalities at a wind facility in Vermont; 2) document patterns of birds and bats killed at turbines, including species composition, age, sex, and seasonal timing; 3) assess the relationship between bird and bat fatalities and environmental and site conditions; and 4) test the effectiveness of operational mitigation at reducing bat fatalities while incorporating temperature as a covariate to improve the design by fine-tuning it to weather conditions when bats are most active. I initiated a two year study from spring 2012 through fall 2013 at the Sheffield Wind Facility located in Sheffield, Vermont, U.S. From 1 April to 2 June and 1–31 October eight of the 16 turbines were searched daily and from 3 June to 30 September all 16 turbines were searched daily. Searchers walked along transects within designated study plots looking for carcasses. When a carcasses was recovered data on carcass location within study plot (e.g., distance from turbine, azimuth) and carcass characteristics (species, age, sex) were collected. I estimated fatalities using the U.S. Geological Survey’s Fatality Estimator software and adjusted for potential biases, including searcher efficiency, carcass persistence, and density-weight proportion areas. Bird fatalities occurred primarily during the spring and fall migration periods, with the majority of fatalities consisting of passerine species. Bird fatalities were estimated to be 211 (95% CI: 147, 321) for the site in 2012, with an estimated 5.27 per MW (95% CI: 3.68, 8.02), and 129 (95% CI: 60, 355) for the site in 2013, with an estimated 3.20 per MW (95% CI: 1.51, 8.86). Bat fatalities occurred primarily during the fall migration period and all bats recovered were migratory tree-roosting species, the majority of which were adult males. Bat fatalities were estimated to be 235 (95% CI: 160, 361) for the site in 2012, with an estimated 5.86 per MW (95% CI: 4.02, 9.02), and 46 (95% CI: 31, 71) for the site in 2013, with an estimated 1.12 per MW (95% CI: 0.76, 1.76). Bird fatalities were negatively influenced by wind direction and moon illumination, whereas bat fatalities were negatively influenced by wind speed and positively influenced by temperature. I found no difference in bird or bat fatalities among turbines with or without Federal Aviation Administration lighting or turbines located on two different mountain ridges. I also found no difference in bat fatalities at turbines with different rotor diameter sizes, but I did find significantly higher bird fatalities at turbines with a larger rotor diameter. I conducted the operational mitigation study from 3 June through 30 September of each year. I randomly selected 8 of the 16 turbines each night of the study for an equal number of nights at each turbine to cut-in at 6.0 m/s rather than the normal cut-in speed of 4.0 m/s. Treatments were implemented from half an hour before sunset to sunrise when wind speeds were 9.5° C. Bat mortalities at fully operational turbines were 2.7 times higher (95% CI: 1.9, 3.9) than mortalities at treatment turbines in 2012, resulting in an estimated 60% (95% CI: 29, 79) decrease in bat fatalities. In 2013, I found 1.5 times (95% CI: 0.38, 5.94) as many fatalities at fully operational turbines compared to treatment turbines. Few bats were found killed in 2013 and small sample sizes that year limited statistical power. Under the conditions of my study, incorporating temperature may not have reduced bat fatalities due to regional temperatures remaining above the 9.5°C threshold during peak bat fatality period. However, incorporating temperature did decrease the amount of unnecessary energy loss from implementing the treatment when bats are not active, particularly during late spring and early fall when temperatures normally drop below the 9.5°C threshold. As such, including temperature in the design can help improve the appeal of operational mitigation to wind companies by decreasing unnecessary costs. Energy loss from implementing the operational mitigation study was

Relationships among morphological structure, function and performance capability of an organism are known as ecological morphology or ecomorphology. Ecomorphology hypothesizes that differences in morphology translate into differences in performance capability, which then results in differences in ecology or behavior that can ultimately facilitate resource partitioning. I tested this hypothesis using insectivorous bats of Krau Wildlife Reserve (KWR), Malaysia. Within paleotropical insectivorous bats, several families have experienced a rapid radiation, but have retained their ancestral feeding specialization as insectivores and show minimal gross changes in morphology. These radiations generated species-rich assemblages made up of species that broadly occupy the same trophic niche. However, the role of ecomorphological differences among species in facilitating coexistence in these assemblages is poorly known. I measured morphological and performance variables of species-rich insectivorous bats assemblages from KWR. My investigations focused on morphological variation in the craniodental structure of bats and bite performance, and variation in wing morphology and flight performance. Measures of morphological size explained most of the variation in morphology and bite force performance of 35 species studied. However, size is not the only factor in determining the maximum bite force. The size-independent mechanical advantage of the lever mandible was positively and significantly correlated with size-independent maximum bite force. Bats with shorter out-lever arms generate greater bite force, whereas bats with longer out-lever arms produce a lower bite force. However, the law of equilibrium as applied to levers states that the speed at which a load moves increases with the length of the out-lever arm. Although differences in size may explain differences in bite force capacity, the trade-off between force and speed of the mandible lever further explain the separation among species in the assemblage. To further improve my knowledge of the influence of functional morphology on the ecology of bite force in bats, I investigated the crucial functional features of biting mechanisms in bats. I used a two-dimensional model of the skull from digital images to estimate masticatory muscle stress across species. Muscle stress is the intrinsic force capacity exerted by muscle fibrils per unit cross-section area of a muscle. It is recognized as a key biomechanical property in the study of animal motion. However, it is impossible to determine in vivo stress of mastication muscles of bats without significant ethical implications and calibration problems. The masticatory muscle stress of the bats in this study was estimated by rearranging the bite force estimation equation by Thomason (1990). The masticatory muscle stress within 29 insectivorous bats studied ranged from 71.38 to 469.74 kPa. I found that measures of size did not fully explain the masticatory muscle stress differences among species. However, the masticatory muscles stress is linked more to the mechanical advantage of the mandible lever. To understand the relationship between wing morphology and flight performance, I tested 15 syntopic bat species that using an obstacle course with 11 different inter-string distances. Instead of using inferential statistical analyses to quantify maneuverability, I used a statistical approach from the human sciences, item response theory (IRT), to assess the ability of bats to negotiate obstacle courses of differing difficulties. I found that flight ability correlated with body mass and all wing variables tested; however, body mass and wing loading were the only significant predictors of flight performance. Body mass was directly correlated with wing loading, and in this experiment I found differences in wing loading that may facilitate niche partitioning within these 15 highly maneuverable bat species. In conclusion, differences in their performances (i.e. bite force and maneuverability) able to explain the patterns in resource partitioning within this species-rich insectivorous bats assemblage.

Spatial heterogeneity in predator activity can create small-scale spatial refugia for prey to occupy to reduce mortality. As songbird nest mortality is primarily due to predation, selection should favor traits that allow birds to assess and use spatial refugia to increase reproductive success. I examined if nest-site selection and success of shrub- and ground-nesting veeries and ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla) were related to small-scale nest predator activity (10s of meters), primarily white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus). Predator activity was estimated over different temporal scales in two studies using different approaches. First, track plates estimated predator activity (rodents and mesopredators) surrounding nest sites (15-m radius) over a seven-day period. Second, from 1998 – 2012 on six 2.25 ha trapping grids mouse and chipmunk spatial activity and abundance (grid-level) was estimated over the songbird breeding season (May – July). Results from both track plate and capture data found veery nests were were not spatially associated with areas of lower predator activity. Additionally, total rodent abundance, not local rodent activity, was substantially the better predictor of veery nest success. Likewise, ovenbirds did not select nest sites with lower predator activity. However, ovenbird nest success was best predicted by chipmunk activity within a 900 m2 area (15 × 15 m) surrounding their nests. These findings indicate that despite putative vulnerability some songbirds may respond differently to common nest predators suggesting that they differ in vulnerability or adopt different behavioral strategies for managing nest-predation risk. Furthermore, nest predation in sympatrically nesting songbirds may be predicted by different measures of predation risk such as abundance or local activity. Information reliably associated with nest failure, such as predator activity, can be used to adjust breeding decisions leading to higher reproductive success. Predator vocalizations may provide a source of information for songbirds to assess spatial heterogeneity in risk that enables them to make appropriate nest-site and territory placement decisions. To determine whether songbirds eavesdrop on a common nest predator, eastern chipmunks, I conducted a playback experiment to create spatial heterogeneity in perceived predation risk. Playback plots broadcast chipmunk vocalizations, frog calls (procedural control) or no playback (silent control). Point counts were conducted from plot centers to compare bird activity among treatments and I measured the distance ovenbirds and veeries placed their nests from playback stations. Ground–nesting birds significantly reduced their activities up to 30 m from plot centers in response to playbacks of chipmunk calls suggesting an adjustment of territory placement or a reduction of overt behaviors (e.g., singing frequency). In contrast, less vulnerable canopy-nesting species showed no effect across experimental plots. Correspondingly, veeries and ovenbirds nested significantly further from chipmunk playback stations relative to control stations. Interestingly, the magnitude of this response was more than twice as high in ovenbirds than in veeries. Findings indicate that some breeding passerines may eavesdrop on predator communication, providing an explanation for how some birds assess spatial heterogeneity in predation risk to make breeding-site decisions. Thus, heterospecific eavesdropping may be a common feature of predator–prey interactions that allows birds to avoid nest predators in space providing greater stability to predator–prey dynamics.

Organic contaminants continue to enter coastal ecosystems, creating stress for animals that inhabit these areas. A variety of factors such as land use, climate, and habitat usage have the potential to impact the accumulation and effects of these organic chemicals. At the same time, the role of these factors in modifying accumulation or contaminant effects at one trophic level can have indirect impacts on higher trophic levels. One example of a negatively impacted coastal ecosystem where land use and climate impact the effects of organic contaminants is the Charleston Harbor estuarine area in Charleston, South Carolina. The objective of this set of studies was to examine the impacts of shifts in land use and climate on contaminant uptake in the Charleston Harbor ecosystem. To better understand these effects at different trophic levels, the bottlenose dolphin was selected as a representative sentinel species. Atlantic croaker was selected as a representative dolphin prey species. The first objective was to use GIS modeling techniques to investigate the relationship between environmental factors and body burdens of organic contaminants in bottlenose dolphins and in dolphin prey fish (e.g. Atlantic croaker). The second objective was to focus on the effects of changing temperatures on uptake of triclosan (a poorly understood antimicrobial chemical with increasing environmental concentrations) in Atlantic croaker in a lab environment as well as to study effects of this chemical on croaker physiology using a series of reflex action mortality predictors (RAMP). The final objective was to explore the effects of triclosan on anti-predator behavior in Atlantic croaker, specifically whether increased exposure would make Atlantic croaker more vulnerable to predation by impacting the strategies used by fish to escape a simulated predator or burst swimming performance. The two triclosan studies consisted of 64 fish randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups which represented a combination of two temperatures and triclosan exposure or no triclosan exposure. The GIS study found that the most important variables in predicting dolphin contaminant loads included a combination of land use characteristics, prey fish characteristics, and characteristics of the individual dolphin, demonstrating the importance of looking at various factors simultaneously. Additionally, some variables were important in fish models but not dolphin models, meaning they could indirectly impact dolphin contaminant body burdens. This study also found that preferential predation on highly contaminated fish may play a role in dolphin contaminant concentrations. The lab studies of triclosan accumulation and effects in Atlantic croaker found that exposure to triclosan at a higher water temperature led to significantly higher accumulation of triclosan than exposure at a lower temperature. Exposure to triclosan, but not changes in water temperature, significantly negatively impacted fish reflexes, specifically resulting in the loss of the dorsal spine reflex. This reflex did not return in any fish during a 5 week reflex recovery trial. The impact of triclosan on the dorsal spine reflex may provide insight into the other sublethal effects of triclosan as well as potential impacts on social patterning in these fish. Triclosan exposure also significantly impacted the strategies employed by croaker to escape a simulated predator, with triclosan exposed fish spending more time stationary than their non-exposed counterparts. There was no effect of water temperature on the strategies used. All four groups were significantly different from one another in terms of swimming performance. The most important factor discriminating between both low and high water temperature as well as control and triclosan groups was total food consumed. Actual triclosan body burden only had a significant effect on the ninth principle component which represents only 0.07% of the total variance in the data. Notably, this was the only principle component where the number of bursts loads strongly. The effects of water temperature on triclosan accumulation as well as the effects of triclosan exposure on anti-predator behavior may lead to differential predation for croaker and have impacts on bioaccumulation in higher trophic level species that consume croaker.

Southeast Asia is known for remarkable mammal species diversity; having both, dynamic geological and climatic changes to shaped much of the regions diversity. Bats of Southeast Asia that are commonly distributed across Southeast Asia provided a unique opportunity to test for species boundaries, and investigate the mode and tempo of diversification. Study on the genus Kerivoula and Hipposideros document multiple genetic lineages that may warrant species level status. Further, identification of these genetic lineages through stochastic coalescent approach yielded similar result as those identified through proposed mammalian genetic threshold. In both groups studied here the use of multiple datasets appears to be critical in resolving evolutionary relationship and providing perspectives from gene trees based on different genetic marker. Although, in the case of Hipposideros, deeper maternal divergences among geographically isolated population are characterized by unique echolocation calls, data from nuclear gene indicates recent gene flow in some species studied. Comparison of phylogeographic structuring of species studied here generally correlates with the Pleistocene epoch, during when sea level fluctuation increase in intensity and frequency. Documentation of isolated refugia in Borneo and strong support for zoogeographic boundary at Isthmus of Kra, highlights the importance of future studies in this island and area to document conspecifics that have recently speciated. Biogeographic reconstruction in the genus Hipposideros highlights the major role of Sunda Shelf (Asia) as the center of origin of species that diversified into Philippines, Wallacea and Australian continent.

Objectives of this study are to use a multifaceted approach to understand biodiversity and systematic implications through the interpretation of genetics and morphological datasets. Extensions to this approach use phylogenetic datasets to infer biogeographic scenarios of diversification, distribution and establishment of monophyletic evolutionary lineage. In Chapter II, I have first assessed the genetic variation within Malaysian bats collected during the TTU-UNIMAS Sowell Expedition in 2006 that are distributed in both Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Out of 16 species studied in this study, nine were identified with 5% or more genetic divergences indicating these phylogroups have been evolving independently for sufficient time to speciate by the Bateson-Dobzhansky-Mueller (BDM) model and therefore deserve further study to determine if specific status is merited. Further study on the taxonomy of these species within their geographic range indicates that some of these species merit a specific status. In some cases, they have been recognized previously as subspecies. Using this as the preliminary data, in Chapter III, I have further applied the genetic species concept to the genus: Kerivoula which was found to exhibit more than 10% genetic divergence within morphologically identified species. Based on the field keys available to us we concluded there were at least three species present in our field collection: K. pellucida, K. intermedia, and K. papillosa. However, based on subsequent morphometric and genetic analyses we identified six species within our collection: K. hardwickii, K. intermedia, K. lenis, K. minuta, K. papillosa, and K. pellucida. The utility of multiple data sets to assess poorly studied genera that show morphological similarities is explained.