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L-phenylalanine. The foliar spray of L-phenylalanine and the soil application of bio-fertilizers (inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Pseudomonas fluorescens and their combined inoculations) on the essential oil from the sage (Salvia officinalis L.) leaves. • L-phenylalanine improved some growth and physiological parameters of sage. • L-phenylalanine along the inoculation of fungi and bacteria increased essential oil yield. • The main oxygenated monoterpenes were 1,8-cineole, camphor, α- and β-thujone. • The highest contents of oxygenated monoterpenes were obtained from L-phenylalanine (500 ppm) × P. fluorescens. • Applied biofertilizers and L-phenylalanine had synergistic effects on the amounts secondary metabolites of sage. Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) as the main herb in the world is cultivated in many countries. Essential oil from the sage leaf is used as raw material in pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. To determine the effects of bio-fertilizers and foliar splay of L-phenylalanine on growth and morphophysiological characteristics and the main constituents and yield of essential oil from the sage leaves, a field experiment in a 2-year study (2016 and 2017) was done according to a combined design in southwestern Iran. Foliar spray levels of L-phenylalanine were 0, 250, and 500 ppm and various bio-fertilizers including control or without inoculation (i), inoculation of the roots of sage seedlings with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (ii), inoculation of the roots of seedlings with P. fluorescens bacterium as a plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (iii), inoculation of the roots with equal mixture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and P. fluorescens bacterium in prepared suspension (iv). The main constituents of the essential oils from the sage leaves were oxygenated monoterpenes including 1,8-cineole, camphor, α-thujone, and β-thujone. Results indicated that the foliar spray of L-phenylalanine significantly influenced measured characteristics, especially quantity and quality of the essential oils from the sage leaves. The foliar spray of L-phenylalanine improved the concentration of chlorophylls, fresh and dry herbage weights, and essential oil yield under treatments of inoculation (fungi and bacteria). Generally, the highest contents of oxygenated monoterpenes in the essential oil of sage were obtained from the foliar spray of L-phenylalanine at 500 ppm under inoculation of the roots of sage seedlings with P. fluorescens bacterium. Indeed, the applied biofertilizers and L-phenylalanine had synergistic effects on the amounts secondary metabolites of sage especially oxygenated monoterpenes. In conclusion, we found that the foliar application of L-phenylalanine along the inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and P. fluorescens and as well as their equal mix can be improved the growth, quantity and quality yields of the essential oil of sage in organic and sustainable agriculture systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volatile oil from the flower petals of damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) is one of the most valuable and important raw materials in the perfumery, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, the impacts of vermicompost, animal manures, and chemical fertilizer on the flower yield, quantity, and chemical compositions as well as the quality index of the volatile oils from the R. damascena flower petals were assessed during three experimental years (2016–2018). Results indicated that the influences of the organic manures and chemical fertilizer during three experimental years were significant on the volatile oil content and yield and the percentages of some major constituents of the volatile oil. The maximum value of the fresh flower petals weight was obtained from the vermicompost, horse dung manure, and N-P-K fertilizer in the third experimental year. In addition, chemical fertilizer treatment followed by the vermicompost and horse dung manure had the highest essential oil content in the second and third experimental years. The vermicompost, horse dung manure, and N-P-K fertilizer improved the volatile oil yield by 102.6%, 99.9%, and 107.9%, respectively in the third experimental year (2018) with control (non-amendment) in the first experimental year (2016). Furthermore, the main compounds of the R. damascena volatile oils analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS were β-citronellol, geraniol, nonadecane, heneicosane, 1-nonadecane, E -citral (geranial), Z -citral (neral), and α-pinene, which the experimental treatments had significant impacts on their percentages. The highest concentration of monoterpene alcohols (such as β-citronellol and geraniol), as an important quality index, which contributes mainly to the perfumery value of rose oil, were obtained from the vermicompost and animal manures in the third experimental year (64.35%, 65.47%, and 61.53%; vermicompost, horse dung manure, and cow dung manure, respectively). Moreover, the best treatment for β-citronellol/geraniol (C/G) ratio, as a typical characteristic of rose oil, was the cow dung manure in the third experimental year by 1.3. On the other hand, the highest values of hydrocarbons such as heneicosane, n -nonadecane, 1-nonadecene, and docosane were obtained from control and N-P-K fertilizer in the first and second experimental years. In conclusion, to improve the quantity and quality of the damask rose volatile oil and also aromatic plant, applying organic sources such as vermicompost and animal manures are recommended in the semiarid climate. [Display omitted] • Improving the volatile oil by chemical fertilizers, vermicompost, and manure. • The organic manures had the highest contents of monoterpene alcohols of rose. • The best treatment for citronellol/geraniol ratio was cow manure at 3rd year. • The organic were the best sources for the good quality of the oil rose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bakhtiari savory is a perennial aromatic herb distributed in Zagros mountain range, southwestern Iran. To determine the effect of extraction methods on qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the essential oil of Bakhtiari savory was extracted by different methods. Conventional methods [hydrodistillation by two Clevenger-type apparatus: British Pharmacopeia (HD BP ) and Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Iran (HD RIFR ), and traditional steam and water distillation (TSWD)], an innovative technique steam distillation (SD innov ), microwave-assisted steam hydro-diffusion (MSHD 400 and 800 W), and microwave-assisted hydro-diffusion (MHD 400 and 800 W) were used to extract essential oil from the aerial parts of savory and their results were compared. The essential oils of all samples were analyzed using GC–FID, GC/MS, and for comparison, a sample was analyzed using head space solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). The highest essential oil yields were obtained from two methods, including HD BP , and MSHD 400 W. Significant differences occurred among the major constituents in essential oils from extraction methods, including thymol, carvacrol, ρ-cymene, and γ-terpinene. The highest amounts of thymol and carvacrol were obtained from MHD (800 W) method in comparison other methods. The highest content of monoterpene hydrocarbons was obtained from HS-SPME, whereas the highest percentage of oxygenated monoterpenes was achieved from MHD (800 W) method. In conclusion, extraction of the essential oil from Bakhtiari savory with microwave-assisted hydro-diffusion (MHD) was better in terms of energy saving, extraction time, oxygenated fraction (thymol and carvacrol), and product quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Myrtle ( Myrtus communis L.) belonging to the family Myrtaceae, is an evergreen shrub that grows mainly in Mediterranean climates. In Iran, the plant grows in the Zagros Mountainous Range of the country. The essential oils from the leaves and fruits of the plant are widely used to enhance the flavor of foods, and cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, essential oil was extracted from the leaves of M. communis collected from six natural habitats in three provinces (Ilam, Lorestan, and Kermanshah), Western Iran. The hydrodistillated essential oil was analyzed by GC/MS. Results indicated that there were significant differences ( p ≤ 0.05) among the various populations for the main constituents in the essential oils. The major components of the essential oils from different populations of M. communis were α-pinene (24.42–31.57%), limonene (trace to 23.55%), 1,8-cineole (5.92–21.21%), and linalool (8.72–11.56%). Results of the antibacterial activity in vitro indicated that the essential oils from M. communis have good inhibitory activities against bacteria, especially Staphylococcus aureus (PTCC 1112). Results obtained in this study revealed that there is a high potential of the essential oil composition variability among the populations of myrtle. The results can be used in selection programs for production of aromatic myrtle with suppressing effects on pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Essential oil of the aerial parts of mountain fennel (Zaravschanica membranacea Syn. Peucedanum membranacea) was analyzed by GC and GC/MS. [•] Cis and trans-β-ocimene, sabinene, α-pinene, γ-terpinene, and α-terpinolene were the main constituents in the essential oils of Z. membranacea. [•] Different populations of Z. membranacea indicated variations in the main constituents of the essential oil. [•] The essential oil of Z. membranacea could be used as a natural antimicrobial agent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Hyssop [ Hyssopus officinalis L. subsp. angustifolius (Bieb.)] well-known for bearing essential oil-producing glands is a medicinal and aromatic plant with valuable properties for pharmaceutical, aromatic, and flavoring. The volatile oil from the aerial parts of hyssop harvested at flowering stage of growth is broadly applied in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries In order to improve the growth, yield, and secondary metabolites production or active substances in hyssop, the experiment was done with factorial arrangement in randomized complete block design during two years (2016 and 2017). The Experimental treatments were three levels of the foliar spraying of chitosan at 0.0, 2.5, and 5.0 g/L under three levels of irrigation frequencies (6, 8, and 10 every days based on irrigation at 80–85% field capacity or F.C., 65–70% F.C., and 45–50% F.C., respectively). Results indicated that the chitosan-spraying at 2.5 g/L meaningfully raised the values of the canopy diameter, plant height, inflorescence height, numbers of auxiliary and flowering branches, dry herbal weight, and the concentrations of photosynthesis pigments (Chl a , and Chl b) under different levels of irrigation frequencies. Increasing interval irrigation decreased some physiological characteristics such as biomass and photosynthesis pigments, however, the amounts of proline and carotenoid in both experimental years increased when the hyssop plants irrigated under reduced irrigation treatment. The highest values of the volatile oil content and yield were obtained from chitosan-spraying in reduced irrigation condition. The major constituents of the hyssop volatile oils analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS were cis- pinocamphone, β-pinene, trans -pinocamphone, myrtenol, bornyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene D, which the elicitation of hyssop with chitosan had positive impacts on the percentage of (cis - and trans -) pinocamphone, as the predominant compounds of the hyssop volatile oil, under reduced irrigation condition. In final, it can be concluded that the applied of chitosan decrease the negative effects of water shortages and improve the quantity and quality yield of H. officinalis under reduced irrigation condition. [Display omitted] The main constituents of the essential oil from hyssop [ Hyssopus officinalis L. subsp. angustifolius (Bieb.)] under the foliar application × reduced irrigation. • The best quantity oil was obtained from chitosan × reduced irrigation. • Pinocamphone (iso and trans) was as predominant constituent of essential oil. • The chitosan × reduced irrigation increased pinocamphones of essential oil. • Chitosan improved most of the features of hyssop under reduced irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Wild and cultivated T. daenensis and cultivated T. vulgaris were compared. [•] Thymol was the dominant compound in oils of T. daenensis and T. vulgaris. [•] T. daenensis and T. vulgaris showed variations in some chemical constituents. [•] Cultivation of T. daenensis proved to be superior in oil and thymol contents. [•] Wild growing of T. daenensis produced highest carvacrol. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bakhtiari savory (Satureja bachtiarica Bunge.) from mint family (Lamiacae) is an endemic species plant widely distributed in southwest of Iran. The aerial parts of Bakhtiari savory were dried using different drying methods, i.e., sun-drying, shade-drying, oven-drying at 45°C and 65°C and freeze-drying. The essential oils of fresh and dried samples were obtained by hydro-distillation, and analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The highest essential oil yields (v/w on dry weight basis) were obtained by oven-drying at 45°C (2.3%) followed by freeze-drying (2.1%), oven-drying at 65°C (2.0%), shade-drying (1.7%), sun-drying (1.6%) and fresh sample (1.2%). Twenty-seven components were determined in essential oils of S. bachtiarica, which were mostly oxygenated monoterpenes and hydrocarbons monoterpenes. The main components in essential oils of fresh and dried Bakhtiari savory aerial parts were carvacrol (31.2–42.2%), γ-terpinene (10.9–18.3%), thymol (11.7–19.4%) and p-cymene (8.2–14.1%). Drying of aerial parts of Bakhtiari savory in the oven at 45°C was the most suitable drying method considering short drying time and high-oil yield. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Phenolic acids and flavonoid compositions of the extracts from Verbascum songaricum flowers separated and quantified each component by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). • Evaluation for adaptation and domestication of Verbascum songaricum was studied for the first time. • Phenolic compositions of the extracts from V. songaricum leaves and flowers were analyzed. • Malondialdehyde, catalase enzyme, and proline contents enhancement under reduced irrigation. • Polyphenols compounds improved under reduced irrigation × rectangular planting pattern. • The information provided will be useful for cultivation V. songaricum into agricultural systems. Mullein (Verbascum songaricum Schrenk.) is the biggest plant species belonging to the Scrophulariaceae family. The aerial parts of V. songaricum , especially leaves and flowers are used as herbal medicine by indigenous peoples of some regions of Iran. The effects of two planting patterns (square and rectangular) and different irrigation regimes, including irrigation in 90-85 % field capacity (F.C.) or control (I 1), irrigation in 60 % F.C. (I 2), irrigation in 45 % F.C. (I 3), and irrigation in 30 % F.C. (I 4) on some phenolic compositions, Malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase enzyme (CAT), proline, and growth parameters of V. songaricum as a new medicinal crop have been investigated. Field experiment was done two consecutive years (2016–17) in semi-arid climate, Southwestern Iran. Total phenolic contents of the ethanol extract from the leaves (2016 and 2017) and flowers (2017) determined by Folin–Ciocalteu assay and phenolic acids and flavonoid compositions of the flowers separated and quantified each component by h igh-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results indicated that the planting patterns had not significant effects on biochemical and phytochemical features, however, the highest values of shoot dry weight and stem height were obtained from the plants cultivated in the rectangular pattern, and also the maximum dry weight of flowers was achievement from the mullein cultivated in the square pattern. Reduced irrigation significantly increased the contents of MDA, CAT, proline, and secondary metabolites such as total phenolic, phenolic acid (gallic acid), and flavonol quercetin, whereas, photosynthesis pigments and growth parameters (chlorophyll a , chlorophyll b , total chlorophyll contents, canopy diameter, plant height, and dry herbal weight) significantly decreased under deficit irrigation. In conclusion, reduced irrigation under the rectangular pattern significantly increased the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoids in the extracts from the leaves and flowers. Finally, the results of this study can be used in agricultural systems in order to growth, development and increase the quantity and quality yields of V. songaricum under reduced irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sage ( Salvia officinalis L.), which is one of the most important pharmaceutical herbs, has been exploited for many uses. It is an important industrial crop that natural products in the form of extracts and essential oil from the leaves of this herb are used in pharmaceutical, perfumery, and food industries. Response of sage to foliar application of chitosan (control, 0.0, 0.25 and 0.50 g/L), a marine polysaccharide with unique bioactive properties, under three irrigation frequencies (4, 6, and 8 every days) was evaluated in an experimental field at semiarid and cold climate, Southwestern of Iran. Chitosan and irrigation frequencies treatments had significant effects on studied parameters, including quantity and quality of essential oil, antioxidant activities, and the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoids of the extract of sage. The results clearly indicated that application of chitosan was beneficial to plants under deficit irrigation treatments. The foliar application of chitosan reduced the adverse effect of reduced irrigation on essential oil yield and improved content of the essential oil. Elicitation of sage with chitosan had positive influences on the amounts of secondary metabolites, such as α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, α-thujone, β-thujone, camphor, and 1,8-cineole in the essential oil from sage under reduced irrigation. In reduced irrigation conditions, the antioxidant activity, and the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid of the extracts increased when the plants were sprayed with chitosan. In conclusion, results of this study indicated that the spray of chitosan elicitor can be have useful impacts on the essential oil quality and quantity, antioxidant activity, and the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid of sage under reduced irrigation conditions or drought stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thymus daenensis Celak., also known as denaian thyme, is an endemic and endangered medicinal herb, having valuable therapeutic properties in the Iranian traditional medicine. In the present study, a two years’ field experiment was conducted to study the influence of organic and inorganic fertilizers on biomass, essential oil yield, essential oil content and compositions and antioxidant activity of denaian thyme in southwest of Iran. The treatments were: no fertilizer (control), chemical fertilizer (CF; NPK at 100-150-100 kg ha −1 ), cow manure, vermicompost (VC) and combined fertilizers (chemical fertilizer + cow manure + vermicompost). Application of combined fertilizers significantly increased the biomass and essential oil yield of denaian thyme as compared with control, in the first and second year, by 39.61% and 68.62%, respectively. Application of fertilizers, however, significantly affected the essential oil compositions of the plants in both growing years. The essential oil of T. daenensis was rich in the phenolic monoterpene thymol. The highest amount of thymol was obtained under application of combined fertilizers in both years. The antioxidant activity of T. daenensis methanolic extracts, evaluated by the DPPH assay, increased (10.41% compared with control) under application of combined fertilizers in the second year. In both years, the N content of the soil increased after treatment with combined fertilizers (around 43% higher over the control). Alike, soil fertility parameters such as P and K showed a marked improvement in all treatments over the control. Results of this study showed that the combined application of fertilizers enhanced biomass and essential oil yield and improved the soil characteristics, antioxidant properties and aroma profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main constituent of Achillea millefolium essential oils at vegetative, flowering and fruit set stages was 1,8-cineole (21.28–34.51 %) as a oxygenated monoterpene compound. • The volatile oil quantity and quality of Achillea millefolium were reported. • The maximum volatile oil content was obtained at flowering stage. • The main constitute of volatile oils was 1,8-cineole. • The antioxidant capacity of the extracts gradually decreased during growth period. • Flowering stage is suggested as the the best stage for production of A. millefolium. Achillea millefolium L. is one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants that is used for the food, perfumery, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. The volatile oil quantity and quality as well as the antioxidant capacity of A. millefolium at different growth stages including vegetative, flowering, and fruit set are investigated. The essential oils content (% v/w) of aerial parts was depended on the plant growth stage and was in the order of: vegetative (0.17 %), flowering (0.24 %), and fruit set (0.14 %). According to oils analysis by GC-FID and GC–MS, 28 components were characterized that accounting for 92.89–97.28 % of the total volatile oil composition. The main constituent at all samples was 1,8-cineole (21.28–34.51 %) as an oxygenated monoterpene compound; followed by camphor (7.27–14.07 %), chamazulene (4.18–11.34 %), and α-eudesmol (2.09–9.63 %). Results showed that the constituents of the volatile oil A. millefolium were varied in regards to the amount of monoterpene and sesquiterpenes at different phenological stages. A considerable decrease and increase were observed respectively in monoterpene and sesquiterpene contents of essential oils during growth season. The total phenol content and antioxidant activity of A. millefolium extract gradually decreased during the plant growth period; however, the total flavonoids content did not show great changes at different growth stages. Based on obtained results, the flowering stage is suggested as the best stage for the production of A. millefolium with the optimal essential oil quantity and quality as well as antioxidant capacity in the extract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]