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Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a blood-borne pathogen which has chronically infected people worldwide. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to design prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine in order to control HCV infection. To date, several researchers have attempted to improve the efficiency of HCV vaccine by using different adjuvants. However, a few studies have focused on the synthetic immunomodulatory drugs as adjuvants for HCV vaccine. Recently, researchers have shown that lenalidomide, which is used to treat the patients with multiple myeloma, is capable of improving the immune system factors. In this paper, two doses of lenalidomide along with pcDNA3.1 + NS3 as HCV DNA vaccine were administrated in mice models and the percentage of regulatory T cells (Treg cells) and the cells with PD-1 + expression in spleen of mice model were investigated by flow cytometry method. Additionally, activities of CTL cells and NK cells were evaluated in spleen of prophylactic and therapeutic mice models via LDH method. Results of the Treg and PD-1 analysis showed that low dose of lenalidomide along with pcDNA3.1 + NS3 can noticeably decrease the percentage of Treg cells and the cells with PD-1 + expression, while lenalidomide can significantly increase the CTL and NK activity in mice models. Also, results of the therapeutic mice model, in which SP2/0 cells- challenged mice were treated with 5 mg/kg lenalidomide in combination with pcDNA3.1 + NS3, reasonably agreed with those of the prophylactic model. Finally, it was found that lenalidomide can reduce the level of Treg cells which results in lower the cells with PD-1 + expression and subsequently higher CTL and NK cell activities. This study concluded that lenalidomide possess the characteristics of an ideal adjuvant candidate for use in combination with HCV DNA vaccine in order to promote the immune response and vaccine efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • TME and glycolysis promote the occurrence and metastasis of tumors. • The mRNA vaccine activates CTL, cooperative NK, and M1 cells to improve the TIME. • Using vectors enhances the anti-tumor effect of the mRNA vaccine by improving TIME. • An mRNA vaccine combined with adjuvants or ICIs inhibits tumor metastasis. With the increasing threat of tumors to humans, mRNA vaccine-based immunotherapy has received extensive attention; however, the killing effect is sometimes unsatisfactory. The occurrence of tumors is closely related to the abnormality of the tumor immune microenvironment, including the increase in the number of immunosuppressive cells, the anomaly of some cells with tumor-killing function, and the increase in the glycolysis pathway, all of which will affect the anti-tumor effect of mRNA vaccines. Furthermore, delivery in the body and successful escape from lysosome are also essential steps that involve the result of killing. Starting from inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis by mRNA vaccines, this paper summarizes the tumor microenvironment constructed by immunosuppressive cells and cytokines, which inhibit immune cells from exerting anti-tumor effects, emphasizing the increase of glycolytic pathway after tumor formation, which makes tumors have a high probability of metastasis. In the present study, mRNA vaccines adjust the number of immune cells by combining adjuvants or immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), thereby improving the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and tilting the balance in favor of immune-potent cells can achieve better anti-tumor effects. All efforts to understand the relationship between TIME and mRNA vaccine will provide a basis for tumor treatment in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dendritic cells (DCs) are recognized as the sole professional antigen-presenting cells capable of priming naive T cells of the helper and cytotoxic phenotypes. This property is presently exploited with success in vaccinal strategies against pathogens or tumor cells that otherwise escape immune recognition, but the repeated infusions of ex vivo expanded and sensitized DCs are usually required to achieve protection. In this paper, we demonstrate that liposomal antigens can efficiently relay and propagate the action of DCs, inducing a strong long-term response against their associated antigen. Their effect is mainly achieved by improving the ex vivo loading of DCs and by efficiently channeling the activation stimulus into the induction of effector function. This is demonstrated by the sustained immunoglobulin production as well as by the sustained lymphoproliferation and the increased cytokine secretion that can be achieved upon restimulation of DC-primed immune cells with limited amount of liposomal antigenic material. Being well-tolerated and easily prepared, liposomal antigens could therefore be expected to significantly contribute to the efficiency and to a more general utilization of the highly promising but rather cumbersome DC-based immunotherapies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Discusses the importance of adjuvants in the development of a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. • Summarizes the results of clinical vaccine studies on similar coronaviruses with various adjuvants. • Discusses the current progress in the development of adjuvanted vaccines against COVID-19. The extensive efforts around the globe are being made to develop a suitable vaccine against COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2). An effective vaccine should be able to induce high titers of neutralizing antibodies to prevent the virus from attaching to the host cell receptors. However, to elicit the protective levels of antibodies, a vaccine may require multiple doses or assistance from other immunostimulatory molecules. Further, the vaccine should be able to induce protective levels of antibodies rapidly with the least amount of antigen used. This decreases the cost of a vaccine and makes it affordable. As the pandemic has hit most countries across the globe, there will be an overwhelming demand for the vaccine in a quick time. Incorporating a suitable adjuvant in a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine may address these requirements. This review paper will discuss the experimental results of the adjuvanted vaccine studies with similar coronaviruses (CoVs) which might be useful to select an appropriate adjuvant for a vaccine against rapidly emerging SARS-CoV-2. We also discuss the current progress in the development of adjuvanted vaccines against the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]