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Traditionally, public understanding of drowning survival has focused on swimming capacity, often measured by how far a person can swim. With respect to the high incidence of adult drowning in high-income countries, using the more inclusive concept of water competency may yield a more comprehensive explanatory framework for understanding the reasons behind these drownings. Any competency base required to survive a drowning situation is dynamic, complex, and multi-faceted. Furthermore, perceptions of risk and capacity to cope with that risk are likely to be pivotal to the avoidance of drowning. Adults' perceived water competence was measured against their actual water competence in a pool environment. Adults were tested on their competence in entering and exiting water, floating, and swimming. Despite most adults (98%) being unable to swim more than 100 m in open water, more than half (59%) perceived themselves as good swimmers, and more than quarter (27%) thought they could swim more than 200 m at the post-survey. In conclusion, reality gaps were found in water competence among adult groups. Differences between perceived and actual competence suggest that many adults may underestimate the risk of drowning and overestimate their competency. This provides a plausible explanation as to why many adults drown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand has an aging population and, despite falling drowning tolls in all other age groups (WSNZ, 2019c), older adults have continued to drown in both increasing numbers and proportion. The reasons for this are not well understood since very little drowning research has focused on older people. A water safety survey (N = 389) seeking information on older adults' aquatic recreational practices and perceptions of safety was conducted at the end of the summer season, 2019. Most adults (86%, n = 335) reported some aquatic activity in the previous year, but those aged 65+ years (66%) were significantly less likely than younger age groups to engage in aquatic recreation. Respondents aged 65+ years were less likely (74%) to perceive they could swim more than five minutes non-stop. We discuss the implications of lower perceived swimming and floating competence and less frequent participation in aquatic activities on risk of drowning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Personal flotation devices (PFDs), commonly referred to as lifejackets, have been identified as an extremely effective form of drowning prevention and was identified as a critical distinct water competency by Stallman and colleagues (2017). In this second phase of the Can You Float? study, perceptions and practice of a range of lifejacket tasks among students (N = 40) with known water proficiency were examined. Participants estimated exertion levels before and after practical testing of six simulated survival tasks when wearing lifejackets. All participants completed a 25m sprint swim, 5-minute endurance swim, 5- minute float, and 25m partner assist but many failed to complete a 15m underwater swim (63%) and deep water exit (63%). Students underestimated the level of exertion required to complete the underwater swim and deep water exit. Reasons for, and implications of, this underestimation are discussed and recommendations for the teaching of lifejacket competency in water safety programs are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents guiding principles on the application of water competence tasks to prevent drowning. Topics discussed include the concept of water competence and representation in water safety education, the use of the principles to help participants interpret, improve and implement practical ways for aquatic practitioners' drowning prevention strategies, and the dynamic constraints model on water competence.

In the 10 years between 2006 and 2015, seven percent of all drowning fatalities in New Zealand were the consequence of land-based fishing activity (Water Safety New Zealand, 2015). In 2006, a collaborative campaign was launched in the Auckland, New Zealand entitled the West Coast Fisher Safety Project. This paper reports on the findings of annual surveys from 2006-2015 to determine what impact, if any, the safety promotion project has had. The most emphatic change in fisher behavior in the intervening decade has been the more frequent self-reported use of lifejackets (2006: 4%; 2015: 40%) and a gradual shift in fisher awareness of the risks associated with rock-based fishing and their vulnerability to that risk. Some risky behaviors (e.g., retrieving snagged lines, wearing gumboots/waders) persisted and required further attention. We discuss implications of having 10 years of data to underpin our understanding of fisher safety and help shape its future direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about people's perceptions of how much swimming competency is required to provide protection from drowning, especially in open water environments where most drowning incidents occur. This study reports on parental perceptions (n = 309) of swimming competency of themselves and their children and parents' beliefs on their safety when swimming in open water. Most parents (58%) considered themselves good/very good swimmers, although more than half (55%) considered that they could swim 25 m or less. Most parents (87%) reported that their children could swim, with more than one-half (52%) believing that their child's swimming competency was good/very good, yet most (74%) considered their child could swim only 25 m or less. Most parents (59%) and almost all children (81%) had never actually swum their reported distance in open water. In spite of these low levels of competency, one-half (51%) of parents thought their children were safe/very safe in open water. We discuss the implications of holding an overly-optimistic belief in the protective value of minimal levels of swimming competency for open water safety. Further exploration is recommended regarding the differences between real and perceived swimming competency especially among at-risk groups such as male children and adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the water safety knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of international tourists holidaying in New Zealand. An online survey was conducted among New Zealand residents (n = 413) and international tourists (n =181) in August 2015. Significantly more New Zealand residents (69%) than tourists (40%) reported swimming at a beach. Tourists were more likely to hold unsafe beliefs related to swimming and boating activity. More tourists agreed that they would swim at a non-patrolled beach. Both residents and visitors had a poor understanding of rip currents at surf beaches. Ways of promoting water safety messaging to address these shortcomings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of inertial measurement unit (IMUs) sensors in competitive swimming movement analysis has become increasingly popular but has not been applied to measuring water competencies related to drowning prevention. This study explored the potential use of IMU sensors in three simulated water competency activities in a pool environment. Participants were a subset (n = 12) of a cohort of students (n = 37) taking part in the Can You Swim in Clothes? project. Participants undertook a swim for speed test over 25 m, a distance swim of 5-min duration, and a dotation test, also for 5 min, wearing swimwear and again in lightweight street clothing while wearing an IMU to measure leg acceleration forces. Results showed that clothing impeded swimming sprint speed and distance but not flotation. Authors suggest further research with regard to IMU placement, appropriate survival activities, and measurement protocols and recommend the need for expanded future IMU use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the second phase of the project entitled Can You Swim in Clothes?, physical education students (n = 37) with known water proficiency completed an aquatics education program that included the wearing of clothes in simulated water survival activities. Using a modified version of Borg's Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE), participants were asked to estimate their exertion levels before and after performing a range of clothing related water activities including a 50 m sprint, a 5 min survival swim, a 15 m underwater swim, and a 5 min survival float. Participants reported significantly higher exertion ratings postactivity than they had estimated for all activities, especially when clothed, irrespective of age, sex, or self-estimated water competency. Reasons for the underestimation of exertion, especially with regard to clothing are discussed. Ways of applying the protocols developed in this second phase of the project to other populations, especially those with less water competency and high-risk groups, are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the effect of clothing on water survival competencies such as swimming and floating in the prevention of drowning. In the first phase of a project entitled Can You Swim in Clothes?, ways of measuring swimming speed, endurance, and floating with/without clothing were explored. Physical education students (n = 12) with known water proficiency completed a 25 m sprint swim, a 5-min swim, and a 5-min float in swimwear and then repeated these tests a week later in clothing. Wearing lightweight clothes significantly reduced swimming speed (33%) and reduced swim endurance (28%) but no significant deterioration in flotation was found, irrespective of age or sex. Greater depreciation was noted in the sprint swim for those who self-reported low water competency. Reasons for this performance change are discussed and ways of applying the protocols developed in this initial phase of the project to other populations, especially those with less water competency and high-risk groups, are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reasons for drowning are most commonly associated with failure to stay afloat or swim to safety. Some evidence suggests that victims drown because they cannot exit the water upon reaching the water's edge. College-aged physical education students (N = 37) completed a pretest survey of self-estimated capacity to exit the water under varied conditions. Participants were then tested in shallow water, deep water (flush edge), and deep water with a ledge (0.41 m) when fresh, after a 5-min swim in swimwear, in clothing, and while wearing a buoyancy vest. All participants were able to exit shallow and deep water when not fatigued, after a swim when wearing clothing or a buoyancy vest, but many failed to exit deep water over a 0.41 m ledge after swimming in clothing (35%) or in a buoyancy vest (49%). Significantly more females than males found exiting deep water difficult. Most participants (especially males) underestimated the demands of exiting deep water. The value of situational learning via exposure to exiting difficulties in simulated pool practices is discussed and recommendations about further research to enhance understanding of the challenges of exiting deep water to safety are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the transfer of swimming skills from indoor, flat, calm conditions to outdoor, wavy, unsteady conditions. The aim of the current study was to examine the differences in swimming, floating, and entry skills in children between calm and simulated open water conditions. Sixty-six children, 11 years of age, were tested on two occasions, once in calm water and once in simulated open water conditions. Testing consisted of a 200 m time trial, a 3 min back floating test, a diving entry, and a rolling entry. The results show an 8% decrement in performance on the 200 m swim between calm and unsteady conditions for those who completed the 200 m under both conditions. When weaker swimmers, who only completed 50 m of the 200 m test distance were tested, the performance decrement rose to 14%. The diving entry, the rolling entry, and the floating test had decrements of 16%, 21%, and 24%, respectively. We concluded that 11-year-olds should not be expected to reproduce swimming skills they have performed in calm water with the same proficiency in unsteady conditions during an emergency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1980-2012, 81 persons fatally drowned in New Zealand while attempting to rescue others. Of these, most (80%) were male, and all rescue fatalities occurred in open waters. Festivalgoers (N = 415) attending a cultural event in Auckland, New Zealand took part in a water safety survey that included information on their readiness to respond in a drowning emergency. Many indicated they would jump in and rescue a victim (47%), while less than one third (30%) would get flotation to the victim. Significantly more males responded that they would jump in and attempt a rescue (males 55%, females 40%). Most (62%) estimated that they could only swim less than 100 m; 85% reported having swum that distance in a swimming pool rather than in open water where most rescues take place; and one half (50%) had last swum the distance more than one year ago. Ways of promoting safe rescue knowledge are discussed and further research directions are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an island nation such as New Zealand with easy access to surf beaches, surfing activities are very popular and, while generally perceived as a healthy form of outdoor recreation, they do have attendant risks. This study reports on nondrowning, surfing-related incidents that required medical first aid on beaches during five summer seasons from 2007-2012. Retrospective descriptive analysis of data from lifeguard first-aid reports found that 16% (n = 1,327) of injuries were the consequence of surfing activity. More males than females were treated for surfing injuries (68% male, 31% female). Lacerations (59%) and bruising (15%) accounted for most of the injuries. The head was the most common site of injury (32%), and most injuries were caused by contact with the victim's own board (50%). Ways of promoting surf safety via equipment modification, the use of protective head gear, the management of surfing activity by lifeguards, and public education are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Culturally and linguistically diverse populations are generally overrepresented in the drowning statistics of high income countries. This paper reports on Asian immigrants' aquatic recreation and water safety in the aquatically-oriented Auckland region. A survey of new settlers (n = 570) was conducted at seven cultural festivities using a self-complete questionnaire that sought information on immigrants' current and previous aquatic recreation and their understanding of water safety. Almost half (43%) had never participated in aquatic recreation prior to coming to New Zealand, and most (72%) now did more aquatic recreation. Most participants (73%) estimated that they could swim less than 50m, one half (47%) had never been taught to swim and had never received water safety education (63%) or CPR training (65%). Given the continuing influx of new settlers in New Zealand, water safety programs that are sensitive to the needs of diverse peoples should be persisted with and focus on identified high-risk activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to report on the technical competency of volunteer surf lifeguards to perform CPR on a manikin in light of their lifeguard experience, age, and gender. The CPR skills of surf lifeguards on patrol at the beginning of the 2010-11 summer season were tested on manikins by observation of CPR procedures and electronic recording of compression and ventilation skills. Almost all lifeguards (n = 252) made the appropriate initial checks for responsiveness (98%). Compression skills were generally performed accurately with few technical errors (such as incomplete release). Most lifeguards (87%) over-ventilated the lungs (> 600 ml) on each breath and, of these, one third (31%) over-ventilated to a point that may worsen gastric distension (> 1000ml). Males were significantly more likely (א² = 28.965, df = 14, p = .01 I) to over-inflate the lungs during testing. Reasons for poor performance are discussed and ways of addressing errors are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to develop a program that addressed parental misconceptions of child CPR. Parents (n= 109) of toddlers enrolled in swim school lessons were randomly assigned to control, pool-based instruction and home-based groups. Initially, one third (30%) of parents were confident of their ability to perform child CPR and only one fifth (22%) correctly reported the recommended compression-to-rescue breath ratio of 30:2 for child CPR. Postintervention, confidence and knowledge of CPR protocols improved significantly for both instruction groups compared with the control group. Correct compression-to-breath ratios significantly improved for the pool-based group (86%) and home-based group (87%) compared with the control group (33%). Child CPR instruction at swim schools provided a valuable opportunity to reduce parental anxiety about performing child CPR and improved knowledge of child CPR. Further research is required to determine how other toddler parents might similarly benefit from such a program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the Australian findings in an international study comparing self-reported and actual swimming and aquatic skills of young adults. Physical Education and Sports Sciences students (n = 263) completed the "Can You Swim?" self-report survey and practical skills assessment, unaware that the practical tests replicated survey items. Relationships for comparisons between practical tests and their matched survey item were weak, indicating participants had inaccurate perceptions of their own swimming skills. Typically, they underestimated their competence in terms of distance and fundamental aquatic skills. Understanding of what constitutes different levels of swimming ability was poor; for example, most participants identified as average or good to excellent swimmers, but more than half of self-identified average swimmers and 20% of good to excellent swimmers estimated they could complete < 100 m of continuous swimming. The implications of study findings for drowning prevention and the need for further research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the relationship between real and perceived water competence among youth in the context of drowning prevention or of their perceptions of their risk of drowning. This study reports the findings of an international project entitled Can You Swim? Collegiate physical education students (n = 373) were assessed in a two-part study using an initial questionnaire survey to provide self-estimates of water competency and risk perception, followed by six practical tests in the water. Correlation coefficients between perceived and real swimming (rs = 0.369) and floating (rs = 0.583) skills were significant but only moderate in strength. No significant gender differences in real or perceived water competency were found. Significantly more males than females estimated lower risk of drowning associated with a series of aquatic scenarios (p = 0.016). The implications of these findings on drowning prevention and the need for further investigation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To study the teacher component of the parent-teacher-learner triad in preschool aquatics and explore compatibility of instructor messages with current drowning prevention beliefs, 133 preschool aquatics instructors were surveyed. Instructors with basic swim teacher accreditation and those with a preschool/infant instructor extension ("Extension") were compared. More Extension instructors selected "safety" as an important outcome (χ2 = 7.907, df = 3, p = 0.048). Both instructor groups considered parental education important but Extension instructors held this view more strongly. Disturbingly, more Extension instructors disagreed that increased toddler confidence following lessons necessitates greater supervision around water (χ2 = 4.141, df = 1, p = 0.042). To avoid such messages, instructor education should place even greater emphasis on close and constant adult supervision and counter the misconception that early age lessons protect children from drowning [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the importance of lifeguards in providing immediate and effective basic life support (BLS) in drowning has been well reported, not a lot is known about how lifeguards perceive the relative value of CPR as a lifeguard skill, their training in it, and the likelihood of resuscitation being successful. A self-complete questionnaire was done by 252 volunteer surf lifeguards at 16 surf beaches in the Greater Auckland NZ region. Results show that most lifeguards (65%) had received training in the 3 months before the survey, 83% were willing to perform CPR, few (9%) had used CPR in an emergency, and many had a realistic expectation of the likelihood of CPR being successful. Recall of CPR compression rates (86%) was very good but initial steps at an emergency scene were less accurately recalled. Ways to address the misconceptions reported in the survey through enhanced training programs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Open water aquatic recreation is a significant cause of drowning, especially in developed countries that have easy access to aquatic environments. To simplify the plethora of safety messages promoted worldwide, 1 8 experts from 12 countries formed the International Task Force on Open Water Drowning Prevention (ITFDP) and published 16 generic, nonboating, open water safety messages. This paper examines the supporting evidence for the messages and. makes recommendations for future research. A systematic review was undertaken of the literature published from 1990 to 2010. Task force members were asked to provide the Secretariat with organizational recommendations or the evidence base that informed their decision making. The review identified strong evidence bases for the importance of supervision and alcohol avoidance. Several messages were supported by some evidence such as lifeguards, CPR training, and life jacket use. The remaining messages had some supporting data and/or were organizational recommendations but lacked evidence demonstrating their efficacy. It identified where evidence to substantiate axiomatic wisdom is lacking and where research is needed to address gaps in our current knowledge of drowning prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2006, a safety campaign was launched in Auckland, New Zealand to combat a spate of drowning incidents associated with fishing from rocky foreshores. This paper provides data from surveys of fishers from 2006 to 10 to determine if preventive behaviors have been adopted after five years of safety promotion. The most significant change in self-reported behavior related to the increased use of life jackets with 34% (95% CI = 0.25-0.44) of fishers in 2010 compared with 72% (95% CI = 0.66-0.77) in 2006 reporting never wearing a life jacket. Some risky behaviors (such as consuming alcohol) and at-risk attitudes (such as overconfidence in their local knowledge) persisted. The cultural and linguistic diversity of fishers, together with their transient participation, make them a difficult group to reach with education interventions, although changes in life jacket use were encouraging. Continuation of the safety campaign is recommended, and ways to further enhance fisher safety are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of children who drown at open-water locations such as surf beaches increases with age. In New Zealand, from 1980 to 2002, 70% of 5-9-year-olds (n = 71) drowned in open water locations. Little is known about parental supervision of young children at beaches. The purpose of this paper is to report on exploratory observations of caregiver supervision of children at the beach. Two experienced lifeguards were trained to observe caregiver water safety supervisory behaviors at 18 popular beaches in the summer of 2006/7. Of the 544 observations made, one quarter (24%) of children in the water were not considered to be adequately supervised. Most supervision (74%) was done by a single person irrespective of the number of children under their control. Of the 130 caregivers failing to provide adequate supervision, one third (30%) lay on the beach sunbathing, one quarter (28%) talked to others, and one quarter (27%) used cell phones. In light of these findings, recommendations about further research on how to observe caregiver supervision and how to enhance safe supervision practices by parents/caregivers are suggested. Water safety organizations need to develop and promote guidelines for the safe supervision of young children at beaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three decades ago, Schuman and colleagues (1977) used the visual metaphor of an iceberg whose underwater base contained a substantial layer of self-reported incidents that posed a serious threat to life so as to illustrate the true extent of the risk of drowning. This present study uses the iceberg metaphor to explore the magnitude of that risk among youth. In addition to describing the fatal and nonfatal drowning incidents at the visual tip of the iceberg, the study presents data from surf rescue records and survey data on exposure to risk and incidence of a life-threatening submersion experience. Most youth had participated in some swimming (98%) or other aquatic activity (94%), and more than one third (37%) reported having had a life-threatening submersion experience. Significantly more females had experienced such an incident (females 41%, males 34%). For one third of youth (30%), the experience had made them more cautious around water, but most (66%) reported no aversive effect. The author discusses the value of the iceberg phenomenon as a visual metaphor of the risk of drowning and its implications on the education of young people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While investment in water safety education appears sound, little is known about how youth construct their understanding of water safety principles and what formative influences impact on their beliefs and practices. Year 11 students (n = 2,202) from 41 high schools took part in a nationwide survey on youth water safety knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. The self-completion written questionnaire was undertaken in school time in the second term of 2003. Data were analyzed using a range of sociodemographic variables, including gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. The formative influence of peers, family, and schooling on the water safety of youth who took part in the study varied considerably. Several key findings suggest that males construct their understanding of water safety and drowning risk differently from that of females. Notably, ten times as many male youth identified peers as the primary source of water safety understanding; however, males reported observing much higher incidence of unsafe practice among their friends. Females were more likely to identify parents and schools as their primary source of water safety knowledge. Ways of addressing these differences are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fishing from rocky shorelines is one of New Zealand's most dangerous pastimes, with 63 fatalities from 1980 to 1995. Little is known about the characteristics of these fishers, their perceptions, and their water-safety practices. We selected four high-risk rock-based fishing locations on Auckland's west coast as sites to conduct a survey and safety campaign during the summer months of 2005-06. One third (n = 81, 32%) of fishers estimated that they could swim 25 m or less nonstop. Almost half (n = 120, 48%) had gone to the water's edge to retrieve a snagged line or engaged in other unsafe practices. Most agreed that wearing a buoyancy aid makes fishing a lot safer (n = 177, 71%), but almost three quarters (n = 180, 72%) admitted that they never wore one. The results indicated that many fishers have limited safety skills combined with an overly optimistic view of their survival skills. Based on our findings, we recommend widespread posting of fishing-safety messages along New Zealand's west coastline that emphasize the twin dangers of overestimation of ability and underestimation of risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the practical and theoretical knowledge of New Zealand youth, identifies gaps in the understanding of water safety by these same youth, and suggests ways of addressing the shortcomings. A questionnaire was completed by 2,202 youth in a nationwide survey, New Zealand Youth Water Safety Survey 2003. Self-reported swimming, rescue, and resuscitation skills and understanding of small-boat and surf safety were the competencies chosen to evaluate youth skills and knowledge. Many estimated that they could not swim more than 100 m (n = 1,192, 54%) or that they could not perform CPR (n = 939, 43%). When analyzed by gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity, the lack of water-safety knowledge among males, youth from low-socioeconomic-status schools, and Pacific Islands and Asian students was consistent and pronounced. The author discusses the implications of these shortcomings for youth drowning risk and recommends ways to address inequities in the provision of water-safety education in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the specific water-safety beliefs, swimming skills, and behaviors that might be associated with beachgoers' perception of drowning risk. New Zealand adult beachgoers (N = 3,371) were surveyed to assess beach swimming frequency, swimming skill, swimming behaviors, and perception of the risk of drowning in five prevalidated scenarios. Thirty-two percent of beachgoers estimated that they could currently swim less than 25 m, 55% reported that they had swum outside lifeguard-patrolled areas, and 26% had swum after consuming alcohol. Young adults and men were more likely to self-report strong swimming skill, more frequent at-risk swimming behavior, and lower perception of drowning risk. High swimming frequency, better self-reported swimming skill, and previous at-risk swimming behaviors were all associated with a lower perception of risk of the case scenarios. Addressing tendencies to overestimate swimming skill and underestimate drowning risk should be focal points of drowning-prevention interventions, especially among young male adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]