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Heritage sites face escalating threats from natural and human-induced hazards, posing risks to centuries of cultural heritage and environmental diversity. Despite this pressing challenge, there is a notable scarcity of qualitative studies linking protection motivation and disaster preparedness in UNESCO-designated sites. Guided by the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) this study fills this critical gap by examining these aspects within UNESCO-designated sites in Africa. By adopting a directed qualitative content analysis approach, key informant interviews of 21 actors, covering 10 countries provided pertinent data for this study. While threat appraisal was strong, coping appraisal was weak, with partial disaster preparedness among UNESCO actors. Notably, the absence of fear as a predominant motivating factor for protection and disaster preparedness was compensated by other factors namely: a strong sense of heritage stewardship, and sustainability/resilience commitment. These findings extend the PMT framework and advocate for future research integrating elements of place attachment theory. By leveraging these insights, stakeholders can collaboratively enhance preservation efforts, ensuring the long-term sustainability of Africa's cultural and natural heritage. • Fear is not a motivation for protection and disaster preparedness. • The PMT is extended by heritage stewardship and sustainability commitment. • High risk perception and confidence in disaster risk reduction measures. • Inadequate human, material, and financial resources allocated to heritage conservation. • Low levels of self-efficacy coupled with partial disaster preparedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community leaders are vital in enhancing community disaster preparedness through empowerment, consensus-building, and public engagement. Despite existing programs, Taiwan lacks essential elements like disaster risk perception and healthcare responses. There is an urgent need for a comprehensive training program that incorporates community leaders' perspectives to address these gaps. This study utilized a mixed-methods approach in a two-step process to develop a theory-based training program for community leaders. The first step involved developing a disaster preparedness training program, identifying core elements through literature reviews on the contents and the protection motivation theory, and conducting qualitative interviews with community leaders to assess their training needs. In the second step, the content of the developed training program was validated. Suggestions from five male community leaders were integrated into program development, resulting in four major themes: community resource linkage, protection and assistance for vulnerable groups, evacuation and sheltering, and health care. The developed disaster preparedness training program was named the R3_SAF3E training program. Content validity was assessed by five experts, with item-level content validity indexes (I-CVI) and scale-level content validity index/averaging (S-CVI/Ave) both were 1, and scale-level content validity index/universal agreement (S-CVI/UA) was 0.94. This is the first study in Taiwan to integrate the protection motivation theory based on community leaders' disaster preparedness needs. The training program demonstrate strong content validity. The results of this study can be used to plan disaster preparedness training for other programs to assist residents in enhancing their disaster preparedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are promising measures for protecting, sustainably managing, and restoring ecosystems as well as addressing societal challenges, including climate change mitigation and adaptation. To consider mainstream NbS for use in disaster risk reduction (DRR) infrastructures, the affected residents' perception and attitude toward NbS are key factors. This study analyzes the attitude of residents in flood-prone areas toward three types of NbSs for addressing flood risk reduction: kasumitei , retarding basins, and flood-protection forests. In addition, the protection motivation theory and structural-equation modeling (SEM) were employed to examine factors influencing residents' desire for NbS from comprehensive explanatory variables. A total of 1828 samples were collected through postal mail survey. The results support the tested hypothesis, that is, individual attributes and perceptual/social factors affecting the participants' desire for the three NbS through flood-threat and coping appraisals. The perception of response efficacy, including effectiveness against flood and other natural benefits from NbS, strongly affect the respondents' desire for NbS, while the perception of disadvantages display a negative effect. Moreover, SEM was used to integrally analyze the different explanatory factors and identify those that could enhance people's desire for NbS, such as the perceived presence of local NbS, cognition of recent increase in flood events, past flood experience, gender, and social capital. These findings can help identify effective and practical methods for enhancing residents' understanding and desire for NbS, including the opportunity to learn about local and authentic NbS, with various benefits as well as interactive communication on NbS for DRR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the size and severity of wildfires in the Western United States have been increasing, and there is growing evidence that smoke from wildfires is associated with various negative health consequences. Integrating perceived knowledge and prior experience into the protection motivation theory (PMT), we surveyed a diverse sample (N = 529) in the Western United States to identify sociopsychological factors that explain wildfire smoke-related adaptive behavioral intentions. While people's intention to adapt to wildfire smoke was positively associated with perceived vulnerability and response efficacy, such intention was negatively associated with perceived self-efficacy and response cost. While prior wildfire experience was not associated with coping appraisal, perceived knowledge was positively associated with coping appraisal and intensified the positive association between perceived severity and behavioral intention. Our findings extend PMT approach in the context of wildfire smoke exposure to identify the antecedent role and moderating role of perceived knowledge and prior experience, while also offering implications for risk communication campaigns to encourage wildfire smoke adaptive behaviors among the public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tsunami vertical evacuation (TVE) buildings have the potential to save many lives. Yet whether TVE buildings actually save lives depends critically on whether people trust and evacuate to them, a question that has not previously been researched. We examine the case of the city of Banda Aceh, Indonesia, where a M8.6 earthquake on 11-April-2012 caused a spontaneous mass evacuation but no tsunami. Our survey of residents living near TVE buildings (n = 202) shows that they clearly prefer horizontal evacuation: in the 2012 earthquake, only 26% evacuated to a TVE building, while 74% evacuated horizontally; if a similar earthquake happened in the future, only 32% intend to evacuate to a TVE building, while 68% intend to evacuate horizontally. To investigate the reasons for this, we extend protection motivation theory to examine people's choices among protective actions under social influence. Those who prefer to evacuate horizontally do not trust the safety of the TVE building and think they can reach a safe inland destination in time, while those who prefer to evacuate to a TVE building think they cannot reach a safe inland destination in time. Encouragement from friends and family influences people's evacuation destinations but official information and training do not. These findings suggest that more attention to the social context is crucial for the effectiveness of TVE buildings. Our extension of protection motivation theory to include choices among protective actions under social influence can be broadly useful in research on self-protective behavior in natural hazards, public health, and other contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, increased flood risk from climate change prompts adaptive behavior of households in situ or through migration. Both can be sensible adaptation responses involving tradeoffs, and understanding their drivers is important for effective climate policy. However, in-situ adaptation and migration are rarely studied in combination and research on how extreme events trigger adaptive behavior in originally low-risk areas is lacking. We analyze survey data from residents affected by the extreme summer floods of 2021 in the Netherlands to contribute to fill this research gap. Our results indicate that current low levels of flood-related migration are likely to increase under higher flood risk. Undertaken in-situ adaptation may act as a barrier for further in-situ adaptation or migration behavior. Where in-situ adaptation is mostly related to cognitive factors including risk perceptions, response efficacy and self-efficacy, migration seems to be driven by flood-related emotions. Personal flood experience, mediated by worry, is strongly associated with both types of adaptive behavior. We discuss how policymakers can use these insights to guide and anticipate household adaptation behavior. • Analysis of household flood adaptation in response to unique extreme flood event. • Among first studies to compare drivers of in-situ adaptation and migration. • Cognitive factors drive in-situ adaptation, flood-related emotions drive migration. • Experience of flooding drives both behaviors, mediated by flood-related emotions. • Flood-related migration is low, but increases under climate change scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines whether motivation to take protective measures in the case of flood risk can be increased using 3D-enhanced messages that emphasize various components of the protection motivation theory (PMT). It also tests the ability to memorise self-protective actions and the assumptions of PMT –including the processing of perceived risk. The study involved a field experiment implemented as a computer-assisted web interview (CAWI) with video material. We divided the subjects (n=740) into six groups; each watched a 3D-enhanced alert message that informed the flood risks and listed recommended countermeasures. The messages differed in 3D animations illustrating selected components of PMT. Warning messages illustrating selected components of PMT were more effective in motivating subjects to act compared to the base condition; however, this was not the case when the messages focused on the probability of threat. Additional visualisations in the messages did not impair the subjects' ability to recall self-protective actions. Using an augmented PMT model with the interdependence of the threat and coping appraisal process leads to a significant improvement in fit. Warning messages are more effective in motivating people to act if they are accompanied by additional persuasive communication based on PMT (i.e. low cost of taking action, the efficiency of this action, self-efficacy, threat severity). Focusing only on threat probability is ineffective. Additionally, messages conveying only what protective measures participants should take should be avoided, because people tend to perceive the cost of action as too high and this weakens their intentions to perform it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippines is one of the countries in Asia known to be vulnerable to the severe effects of fire disasters as the country loses a considerable amount worth of damages due to fire disasters. The study aimed to determine the factors that significantly affect Filipinos' perceived effectiveness for fire prevention preparedness in urban areas by integrating Protection Motivation Theory and the extended Theory of Planned Behavior. 503 respondents voluntarily participated in the self-administered online survey questionnaire distributed among Filipinos residing in the National Capital Region, Philippines. Utilizing the structural equation modeling (SEM) approach, results showed that media platforms (MP), fire experience (FE), and fire insurance policies (FI) had significant effects on fire prevention knowledge (KFP). In addition, FE, FI, and KFP variables established significant effects on perceived severity (PS) and perceived vulnerability (PV) which eventually affected perceived behavioral control (PBC) and attitude toward the behavior (ATB). PBC and ATB were found to affect subjective norm (SN); thus, PBC, ATB, and SN variables were determined to have substantial effects on safe behavior (SB) and perceived effectiveness (PE). This paper is the first study in the Philippines that investigated the current fire mitigation strategies. The results will be valuable among researchers and policymakers in creating a compelling future fire mitigation intervention to improve people's fire preparedness and safety behavior. Finally, the SEM constructs of this study can be adapted and extended to determine fire mitigation effectiveness worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The torrential rains in July 2018 caused considerable river overflow, flood damage, and landslides, particularly in western Japan. At that time, 232 fatalities and missing persons were recorded, with most human damage caused by delays in evacuation. These delays occur during most torrential rain events, and can presumably be attributed to a situation awareness error in the disaster response of residents. This study analyzed the evacuation decision-making structure by adding a situation awareness error to the protection motivation theory framework. Accordingly, the evacuation actions of residents during torrential rains in Japan in 2018 were surveyed and analyzed using structural equation modeling and logistic regression. Most respondents chose not to evacuate despite showing a high intention to do so. Such respondents evacuated only in response to a trigger such as a dramatic change in their surrounding environment or the receipt of an evacuation appeal. By considering situation awareness errors in protection motivation theory, this study identified active and passive evacuation decisions to clarify the stage at which evacuation delays occurred. The findings provide guidance on the stage of situation awareness that should be promoted and the specific measures required to achieve efficient evacuation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Super Typhoon Odette has been reported as one of the world's most devastating natural disasters in 2021. It caused massive damages and casualties in 10 out of 17 regions in the Philippines. Despite the available platforms for donation, a massive amount is still needed to help mitigate the aftermath of the typhoon. This study aimed to predict factors influencing intention to donate to Super Typhoon Odette victims that happened during the holiday season in 2021 by integrating protection motivation theory and extending the theory of planned behavior. An online self-administered survey was administered and 1031 respondents voluntarily participated. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Random Forest Classifier (RFC) showed that understanding Typhoon Odette, perceived severity, and perceived vulnerability led to a very high intention to donate to Typhoon Odette victims. It was seen that when people understand how severe the natural disaster is and how vulnerable the affected area is, they would have a high intention to help through donations. This is the first study that evaluated the intention to donate to typhoon victims that happened during the 2021 holiday season. The results of this study could be utilized to promote different platforms to collect more donations for the victims of the Typhoon Odette in the Philippines. Finally, this study's new use of SEM and RFC can evaluate the intention to donate to massive natural disaster aftermath worldwide. The Final SEM for Factors Influencing Intention to Donate to Super Typhoon Odette Victims. [Display omitted] • SEM and RFC were utilized to predict factors influencing intention to donate to Super Typhoon Odette victims. • Perceived severity was found to be the key factor that led to a very high intention to donate. • Understanding Typhoon Odette had a significant effect on intention to donate. • Perceived vulnerability had a significant effect on intention to donate. • The integrated model could be utilized to evaluate intention to donate for other natural disasters worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic eruption is a known natural disaster threat in the Philippines, and lack of disaster preparedness may lead to immense property damages and human casualties. This study aimed to determine the relevant factors affecting Filipinos' preparedness beliefs in the risk of the Taal volcano eruption by integrating the Protection Motivation Theory and the extended Theory of Planned Behavior. A total of 653 individuals living in nearby urban and rural areas around the Taal volcano answered the self-administered questionnaire with 61 questions (61 indicators and 11 latent variables). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), results showed that Perceived risk proximity, Media, and Hazard knowledge had substantial effects on Perceived severity and Perceived vulnerability. Perceived severity and Perceived vulnerability consequently have positive direct impact on Perceived behavioral control, Risk avoidance norms, and Attitude toward the behavior, which were found to have a direct significance to Intention to evacuate, Preparedness behaviors and Preparedness beliefs in the threat of Taal volcano eruption. The results will contribute to researchers and policymakers in developing disaster mitigation plans to minimize the effects of volcano-related disasters and build community resilience to natural disasters. Furthermore, the SEM constructs can be extended and modified to analyze the preparedness in other third world countries prone to natural disasters. The final SEM for preparedness beliefs on Taal volcano eruption among Filipinos. [Display omitted] • PMT and extended TPB were utilized to analyze factors affecting perceived preparedness on Taal volcano eruption. • Geographical proximity and media platform had significant effects on perceived severity. • Perceived severity and perceived vulnerability had effects on adapted behavior. • Perceived behavioral control and attitude had effects on adapted behavior. • The SEM can be a foundation to minimize the severe effects of volcano-related disasters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The response efficacy measures can be utilized to assess a person's beliefs as to whether the recommended action step will actually minimize the impact of a natural disaster such as a typhoon. This study examines the response efficacy of Filipinos under Typhoon Conson 2021 (Jolina) using the Extended Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) approach. To accurately measure the factors and their relationships to response efficacy, an online questionnaire was developed and distributed using a convenience sampling method to 388 Filipinos a few days before the typhoon hit the Philippines. Several latent variables in PMT such as understanding of typhoon, perceived severity, response cost, self-efficacy, and response efficacy together with some additional latent variables such as typhoon experience, geographical perspective, and perceived susceptibility were analyzed simultaneously. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) showed that perceived severity of the typhoon and self-efficacy were the key factors affecting the response efficacy of Filipinos in preparing for typhoon Jolina. Moreover, it was also found that understanding typhoons, self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility, and past typhoon experience indirectly affected response efficacy. The results of this study could be utilized by future researchers and planners of natural disasters to find ways of enhancing the response efficacy in preparing for typhoons. Finally, the findings of this study can also be utilized as a theoretical framework for government worldwide in designing and implementing strategies and policies for natural disaster risk protection. Fig. 1. The final SEM for determining the response efficacy for Typhoon Jolina. [Display omitted] • The Philippines is one of the most disaster prone countries in the world. • Extended PMT was adopted to evaluate the response efficacy of Typhoon Conson 2021. • Perceived severity of the typhoon and self-efficacy had effects on response efficacy. • Understanding , self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility, and experience had indirect effects on response efficacy. • The framework could be utilized for enhancing the response efficacy in preparing for typhoons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Typhoon Vamco (Ulysses) is considered one of the most devastating typhoons in the Philippines in 2020. It caused fatalities, property destructions, and catastrophic flooding in Metro Manila and the nearby provinces. The purpose of this study was to assess the factors affecting the perceived effectiveness of the 2020 typhoon Vamco (Ulysses) flood disaster response among Filipinos by integrating the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) and extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). 567 Filipinos answered an online survey questionnaire with 75 questions (63 indicators and 11 latent variables). Structural equation modeling (SEM) showed that geographical perspective (GL) and typhoon – flood experience and knowledge (TPE) had significant effects on Perceived Severity (PS) and Perceived Vulnerability (PV), which subsequently led to Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), Subjective Norms (SN), and Attitude (ATB). PBC, SN, and ATB were also found to have significant effects on Intention to Follow, which subsequently led to Behavior and Perceived Effectiveness from the 2020 Typhoon Vamco (Ulysses) flood disaster risk response. Interestingly, government support (GR) was insignificant to an effective flood disaster response, and 52.38% of respondents perceived that the typhoon had more severe effects than the flood after the typhoon. This study is the first study that analyzed the perceived effectiveness of disaster response towards 2020 Typhoon Vamco. The findings will be very beneficial for academicians and policymakers as it provides a robust model and results for experts to analyze natural disasters to develop optimum disaster risk responses in mitigating the severe effects of typhoon floods. Finally, the SEM construct can be broadened and adapted to flood disaster response effectiveness applicable in other natural disaster-prone countries. [Display omitted] • PMT and extended TPB were utilized to analyze factors affecting perceived effectiveness of Typhoon Vamco Disaster Response. • Geographical perspective and typhoon experience had significant effects on perceived severity and perceived vulnerability. • Perceived severity and perceived vulnerability had significant effects on intention to follow. • Government support had no significant effect on perceived effectiveness. • The SEM construct can be broadened and adapted to typhoon and flood disaster responses worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lack of studies on Filipinos preparedness in natural calamities such as earthquakes, specifically "The Big One", posed the necessity for researchers to assess the preparedness and disaster mitigation. This study aimed to assess the driving factors that significantly influence the intention to prepare among Filipinos for mitigation of The Big One earthquake. With the integration of Protection Motivation Theory and Extended Theory of Planned Behavior, the study considered 727 valid responses to measure the intention to prepare. Eight latent were measured namely: (1) perceived vulnerability, (2) perceived severity, (3) subjective norm, (4) perceived behavioral control, (5) attitude, (6) media, (7) understanding of The Big One, and (8) intention to prepare. By utilizing Structural Equation Modelling, it is found out that Media, Attitude, Perceived Severity and Subjective Norm are all key factors affecting the intention of the people to prepare for the Big One. Moreover, it was also found out that the Understanding of the Big One has an indirect effect on the intention to prepare. The findings of the study can be utilized by the government to make Filipinos for conducting preparedness and mitigation practices. Finally, the model construct of the study could also be utilized to evaluate other types of natural disasters worldwide. The final SEM for determining factors affecting the intention to prepare among Filipinos for mitigation of The Big One earthquake. [Display omitted] • PMT and TPB were integrated to evaluate the earthquake mitigation. • Media had a significant effect on intention to prepare. • Attitude, perceived severity, and subjective norms had significant effects on intention to prepare. • Understanding of The Big One had an indirect effect on the intention to prepare. • The framework could be utilized to evaluate other types of natural disasters preparedness worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smallholder farmers in semi-arid regions continuously face drought risk, leading to recurring crop damage, income loss and food insecurity, and they are taking adaptive measures to cope with this risk. By comparing and combining empirical data and existing behavioural theories, we studied the complexity of smallholder farmers' adaptive behaviour in Kitui, Kenya. We conducted interviews with key informants, a survey of disaster managers and an extensive questionnaire and choice experiment among local smallholders, and found that mistrust in forecasting and a strong belief in God appeared to be barriers to adaptation, while farm groups and past adaptation decisions seemed to stimulate the intention to adopt new measures. Our results confirmed the importance of several components of existing bounded rational theories in that risk appraisal, social norm, self-efficacy and response cost and efficacy significantly influence adaptive behaviour under drought risk. However, none of the evaluate theories could fully explain the observed behaviour. We further demonstrated that tailored extension services, improved early warning systems, ex-ante cash aid and low interest credit schemes increase the intention to adapt. While a general aversion to the current situation was evident, there was great heterogeneity in the preferences for these policies. Findings of this the extensive data collection and analysis can be used to identify the most vulnerable groups and develop well-targeted adaptation policies, and for designing, calibrating and validating of utility functions to model heterogeneous adjustment decisions in dynamic drought risk models. • o existing economic or cognitive-behavioural theory can fully describe the observed adaptive behaviour of smallholder farmers in Kitui. • Risk perception, perceived vulnerability, social network, knowledge, adaptation costs, and feasibility are important barriers/drivers. • Significant heterogeneity in adaptive behaviour exists, which translates to a differentiated effect of diverse governmental policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined age differences in barriers to preparing for disasters and how caregiving responsibilities are associated with these barriers among different age groups. Using a sample of 1142 individuals from the 2017 Federal Emergency Management Agency National Household Survey, binary and multinomial logistic regressions were conducted to investigate the likelihood of encountering any or one of the two types of barriers, namely, barriers related to coping appraisal (i.e., capacity) and those related to threat appraisal (i.e., risk perception). Age was the key predictor and was categorized into five groups: 18–34, 35–49, 50–64, 65–74, and 75+. The results showed that the 18–34, 35–49, and 75+ age groups were more likely to have coping appraisal barriers than those aged between 65 and 74. In addition, being a caregiver increased the likelihood of having coping appraisal barriers. Interestingly, relative to the 65–74 age group, being a caregiver in the 18–34, 35–49, and 50–64 age groups would be more likely to have coping appraisal barriers. Our findings highlighted age patterns and heterogeneity among older adults. This study also directed attention to how disaster preparation behaviors were shaped by life course experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic ash contains potentially toxic elements which could affect human health. There is a paucity of research focusing on the impact of airborne volcanic emissions on the health of children, and on their exposure reduction. Children's carers (parents/guardians) are critical to their protection, so documenting their perceptions of the health risk and their knowledge of how to reduce their children's exposure is an important first step to increase our understanding of how risks are acted upon. This article reports the findings of a survey of 411 residents with caring responsibilities for children aged 12 and under in communities near the active volcanoes of Sakurajima in Japan, Merapi in Indonesia, and Popocatépetl in Mexico. Informed by the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) and Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), we investigated their perceptions of the health effects and harmful consequences of the ash on their children, how important they thought it was to protect them, and the protective actions taken. The Indonesian carers were the most concerned and motivated to protect their children, although, in all three countries, the large majority of carers had adopted protective measures that they perceived to be most effective, such as keeping windows and doors closed. Path analysis illustrated how the connection between perceptions of harm/worry and importance of protection could partially account for higher motivation levels to protect children, in the Indonesian carers. We discuss the key messages conveyed through the findings that are of relevance for policy, practice and training in all three countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Private flood protection measures can help reduce potential damage from flooding. Few intervention studies currently exist that systematically evaluate the effectiveness of risk communication methods. To address this gap, we evaluated a series of six workshops (N = 115) on private flood protection in flood-prone areas in Germany that covers different aspects of flood protection for individual households. Applying mixed-model analysis, significant increases in self-efficacy, subjective knowledge, and protection motivation were observed. Younger participants, as well as participants who reported lower levels of previous knowledge or no flood experience, showed a higher increase in self-efficacy and knowledge. Results suggest that a workshop can be an effective risk communication tool, raising awareness and motivating behaviour among residents of flood-prone areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines flood risk and adaption to it, including the possibility of out-migration, in two flood-prone coastal locations in the Philippines through the lens of Protection Motivation Theory. Much of the country is at risk of coastal flooding due to sea-level rise and from severe weather-related events. The data analyzed were obtained in 2016 and 2018 from focus group discussions with local residents, individual interviews with local government officials, and field observations. Residents' and officials' reports reveal a number of consistent themes in both places and over time, with some important differences. Both locations were grappling with regular minor to moderate flooding in 2016, as well as with occasional severe flooding. Respondents reported serious economic, health, and safety threats associated with flooding events. Recent infrastructure improvements appear to have reduced routine flood risk in one location, but considerable risk from major storms remains in both places. While some housing has been abandoned because of flood damage, and while some better-off residents have moved away, most are not currently considering retreat as a near-term solution. Instead, most people are adapting in place and attempting to devise strategies to mitigate flood risk in their communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change-related natural hazards severely affect farmers' livelihoods. This study explores how farmers in the vulnerable western lowlands of Nepal are affected by floods, heatwaves, and cold spells, how they adapt, and the factors influencing their risk perception and intended adaptation behaviour. Data were collected through a survey of 350 randomly selected farming households from the Banke and Bardiya districts in the Tarai region. Farmers identified environmental risks as the most severe risks to their agricultural production, and their main adaptation strategies, including changes to planting dates and crop varieties and increasing the use of fertilisers and pesticides. Following protection motivation theory and using structural equation modelling, we found that farmers' risk perception and adaptation behaviour in response to three specific hazards (floods, heatwaves, and cold spells). The flood impact model showed that self-efficacy, perceived responsibility, response cost, trust, and concern partially influenced flood risk perception. These, in turn, mediated affected farmers' intended flood adaptation strategies. Flood damage experience thoroughly explained flood adaptation behaviour and was mediated by flood risk perception. Risk perception of flood has the significant mediation effects in the flood model, but heatwave and cold spell risk perception did not have any mediation effect in neither the heatwave nor the cold spells models. We attribute this discrepancy to the fact that slow and rapid onset hazards are perceived differently. These problems were compounded by farmers also lacking both awareness and the requisite knowledge of how to deal with the impacts of the climate change related slow-onset hazards that will become more frequent as climate change continues, unabated. These differences will need to be accommodated in sustainable was in community awareness and disaster management programs to increase adaptive and resilient community capacity for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]