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Abstract This paper analyses relationships between private supplementary tutoring and mainstream schooling in urban Maharashtra, India. The role of private tutoring progressively expands from the lower to the higher grades, and is especially visible in Classes 11 and 12 when it seems to supplant rather than supplement mainstream schooling. The paper notes the complex interplay of social, economic and educational factors in the shifting relationships, and has relevance not only for other parts of India but also other countries. The dynamics of private tutoring should be considered when conceptualising educational processes and devising policies for schooling, especially in relation to social inequalities and the efficiency of school systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of the size and complexity of higher education in India, there are a multitude of strategies for addressing financial partnerships and trends. India, as the world's largest democracy and a country with a recent colonial history struggles with the pressures of tradition on one hand and outside influence on the other. It is not possible to address all of the issues and strategies in one paper. Accordingly, this paper discusses three issues that relate to the funding of higher education in India: neoliberal economics, business/government relationships, and philanthrocapitalism and their impact on the formation of private universities in satisfying the need for increased participation in higher education in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Having achieved remarkable improvements in basic education, India now faces the issues of low learning levels, and a high dropout rate. This paper examines whether the learning crisis is responsible for students dropping out of school using unique panel data that followed nearly 1000 Indian children from 2002 to 2013. We discover that literacy skills acquired by the age of 12 have long-lasting, positive effects on subsequent school progression. We also find that local job opportunities influence school progression. Further, we find that time spent on household chores negatively affects literacy acquirement during primary school years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the nationwide school-feeding programme—the Mid Day Meal Scheme (MDMS)—in India as its anchor, this paper critically evaluates the use of schools as sites for discharging social policies. Data from semi structured interviews ( N = 26) and focus groups ( N = 8) conducted in a north Indian village provide evidence that the community distrusts the central and the regional governments and regards state run schools as deficient institutions. In such a social climate, the community perceived the MDMS as an evil governmental design to distract poor people from education. Such representations, the paper argues, further erode the faith of the community in state run schools. Crucially, data from the study indicate that the MDMS has contributed to a shift in community representations of schools from being a site for imparting education to that of an institution providing free meals. It is argued that such a shift in community representations of schools may hinder the agenda of promoting education in disadvantaged settings. The paper concludes by identifying two critical considerations in using schools as the site of social policy: (a) the symbolic environments of meaning making which inform local interpretations of policies; and (b) the local meaning making and representations that communities develop of new or existing social policies. The theory of social representation informs the arguments made in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to draw attention to two important, but less researched, areas regarding low fee private school provision in India. Firstly, the paper evaluates the impact of fees on household debt burden and decision-making, and secondly highlights the dynamic interplay between the private and government sub-sectors and the potential consequences this may have for educational delivery. The paper attempts to provide an overview of the historic growth, extent and performance of low fee private schools and private tutoring. Consistent with others, the paper finds that private provision is not currently accessible to the poorest and thus potentially deleterious to equity both within schools and within families. While drawing on existing research and particularly the longitudinal Young Lives data sets in Andhra Pradesh – findings are largely exploratory. The paper concludes that there is a need for further research on both household and school effects related to increasing privatisation in education. In particular there is a focus on how emerging inequalities emanating from school choice and private tuitions can be addressed. This is urgently needed to inform policy and investment decisions that maximise the contribution of both sectors and mitigate against inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper provides an overview of recent trends in basic education provision in India: charting an impressive expansion of enrolment in public schools but a growing concern with the quality of learning. Concerns around quality are seen as a driving factor in the migration of students from the public sector to low fee private schools. While there is evidence of improved learning amongst some low fee private schools there are also significant concerns around equity. The paper proposes that for the sake of future generations it is necessary to move beyond a polemical focus on state or non-state provision but rather to focus on six core questions about education provision: Is it sound pedagogically? Does it deliver meaningful learning? Is it equitable? Is it scalable? Is it financially viable and Is it sustainable? These questions are explored through a review of ‘Gyan Shala’, an innovative low cost education programme operating in the slums of Gujarat and Bihar. The paper concludes that a better understanding of the dynamic between the sectors is needed to ensure effective education planning which will deliver meaningful learning to all. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Schooling of children with disabilities has become an important development agenda, as also emphasized in the SDGs. This paper examines how parents of children with disabilities from low income families living in a rural community in India understand and experience the schooling of their child with disabilities. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with mothers. Findings suggest that mothers greatly valued schooling both for its short and long term benefits; however they were acutely aware of the poor quality of schooling on offer. While parents emerged as strong enablers in supporting their child's schooling they were seemingly devoid of agency to enable their child with disabilities to access meaningful education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Since the early 1990s, significant progress has been made with regard to education in India. This positive development stands, however, in sharp contrast with the way in which government teachers themselves think and talk about education. Instead of feeling pride and satisfaction, many teachers are unhappy, and often self-critical. Based on focus group discussions and interviews with teachers in Andhra Pradesh, south India, this paper analyses the reasons behind motivations and demotivations of government school teachers. The paper concludes that there is a need for a new professional ethos and culture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Drawing on data collected from a school-based study in India, this paper adds to the scant literature on the relationship between school quality and agency and attitudes of girls and boys in secondary schools; it also explores the better-researched association between school quality and academic competencies. The study was conducted among girls and boys in Class 10 in 30 government-run secondary schools in the state of Bihar. Findings show that classroom dynamics, particularly non-discriminatory treatment by teachers and their expression of gender egalitarian attitudes positively influenced gender role attitudes and awareness of health matters among girls and boys. It also influenced their academic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how teaching quality impacts students’ outcomes in public and low fee charging private schools in India. Drawing on Young Lives longitudinal study, students in private schools have a significantly higher mathematics score than public schools. Across public and private schools, teachers’ characteristics such as experience, gender, content knowledge and general education qualifications do not have significant influence on students’ learning outcome. Proximity of teacher's residence to the school, teacher's professional qualification and teacher's attitude towards schools and students and teaching practices such as regular checking of books, emerge as important determinants of students’ outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a summative evaluation of a professional development program for para-teachers within an Indian NGO. The program aimed to support para-teachers in well-structured learner-centered enactment by introducing planning and reflection of daily lessons. The study investigated lesson plans, enactment and pupil outcomes to assess the extent to which para-teachers could plan and enact well-structured learner centered lessons. The study suggests strong evidence that the program was successful in helping para-teachers achieve greater quality of lesson planning, enactment and pupil learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper examines the factors that prevent slum children aged 5–14 from gaining access to schooling in light of the worsening urban poverty and sizable increase in rural-to-urban migration. Bias against social disadvantage in terms of gender and caste is not clearly manifested in schooling, while migrated children are less likely to attend school. I argue that the lack of preparation for schooling in the pre-schooling ages and school admission procedures are the main obstacles for migrated children. The most important implication for universal elementary education in urban India is raising parental awareness and simplifying the admission procedures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper informs debates about the potential role for low-fee private schooling in achieving Education for All goals in India. It reports Young Lives’ longitudinal data for two cohorts (2906 children) in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Eight year olds uptake of private schooling increased from 24 per cent (children born in 1994–5) to 44 per cent (children born in 2001–2). Children from rural areas, lower socioeconomic backgrounds and girls continue to be under represented. While some access gaps decreased, the gender gap seems to be widening. Evidence on risks to equity strengthen the case for an effectively regulated private sector, along with reforms to government sector schools. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study explores the effectiveness of a game-based mobile learning model for children living in underdeveloped regions with significant contextual variations. Data for this study came from a total of 210 children between the ages of 6–14 years old from six marginalized communities in India. The findings reveal that children with little or no previous exposure to technology were able to not only figure out the given mobile learning technology, but also solve a series of incrementally challenging problems by playing math games without specific intervention or instruction by adults. The study also found that various factors, including gender and group size, do affect children''s ability to adopt and learn while presenting a unique set of learning interaction patterns. This paper concludes with specific recommendations for future ICT4D (Information and Communication Technology for Development) projects for educational development particularly targeting developing regions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper challenges constructions of the ‘gendered illiterate Indian villager’ as a homogenous group of people who are empowered through acquiring literacy. I strive to displace homogeneous representations of gendered ‘illiterate’ subjects through ethnographic accounts of diverse people''s realities in different villages in Bihar, India. I argue that the circumstance under which a relationship between gendered adult education subjects and adult education programmes gets constructed impinges on notions of: norms, interpreting and translating Others, networks and empowerment within and outside the context of adult education programmes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the last decade the national Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) programme has focussed on universaling access to elementary education (Grades I–VIII). Most recently the Right to Education Act provides the legislative framework to guarantee schooling to all children between 6 and 14 years of age. It remains the case however that less than half of all children attend and complete secondary school especially in the Northern states. Under the 11th National Plan Rastriya Madhyamic Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) has been launched to increase the numbers entering secondary school. This paper explores some of the key issues in planning and managing the growth in participation that is envisaged so that 75% or more enjoy the benefits of transition to Grades IX and X. The issues include the constraints on expansion that arise from the restricted output of elementary school graduates, the continued exclusion of the poorest and those from disadvantaged groups from progression to Grade VIII, the costs to households and government of universal secondary schooling as currently structured, the limits to growth of private provision, the massive infrastructure needs, and the problems associated with increasing teacher supply and deployment. Policy dialogue around secondary school expansion is a central concern if India is to close the gap between itself and China and other rapidly developing countries in educating most of its population beyond the elementary level. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Global and national agendas to achieve universal primary education and improve the ‘quality’ of school provision in developing countries have identified the need to reform classroom pedagogy. Since the 1990s, child-centred ideas in particular have been utilised in teacher-training programmes and school reforms across many parts of Africa and Asia with the intention of creating more child-friendly, democratic learning environments. Analysing episodes from classroom observations conducted in a rural Indian primary school, this paper reveals the tensions experienced by one teacher in handing over greater classroom control to pupils. It provides insight into the complex processes of pedagogic interaction, and sheds light on some of the possibilities and conditions for achieving child-centred pedagogic change in such development contexts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper gathers and analyzes self-reported user behavior data for public computers installed in varied neighborhoods in India to explore the relationship between environmental factors such as urbanicity and reported usage behaviors. There is evidence of large differences in usage behavior between urban and non-urban sites. Children at urban sites fit a profile of dedicated and independent kiosk-goers, while rural children are more likely to use the computers in groups. Total overall computer usage, however, appears similar in both environments. The sites used for the study have other important characteristics, such as proximity to a school complex, which could have large mitigating effects on the measured behaviors. Further study could yield other interesting and more generalizable results. This study provides insight into children''s behavior patterns at free-access ‘Hole-in-the-Wall’ computers as well as offers exploratory findings for the designers of free-access computers in developing nations where alternative educational development via technology could be implemented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports on findings from a large sample survey in the states of India that account for two thirds of the children out of school. It then examines the feasibility of the central government''s goals to ensure all children complete 5 years of school by 2007, and 8 years by 2010. These goals—more ambitious than the global EFA goals—are unlikely to be achieved without significant reforms by the central and state governments. It examines key reform options: in the public spending pattern; improving teacher accountability and work environment; incentives to improve demand for schooling; and the private sector. It argues that central to universalising elementary education will be improving the level, equity and efficiency of public spending. However, even with these reforms, improving teacher accountability will still remain key to the achievement of the goals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Research explored the regulatory regime, both ‘on paper’ and ‘in practice’, for private unaided schools serving low-income families (‘budget’ private schools), in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Interviews were conducted with school managers, teachers, parents, and senior government officials and politicians. A Supreme Court Judgement rules out profit-making in the schools, although, in practice, interviewees said this was widely ignored. At the state level, extensive regulations govern all aspects of a school''s work. In practice, government officials reported, however, that only four regulations need to be met, but none of the recognised schools met more than two of these. In practice, there may be too few inspectors and a culture of bribery and corruption. A possible way forward is described, of private self-regulation, based on findings concerning parental accountability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Overall, private school students have better learning outcomes than their government school counterparts in India. • Student's absenteeism in school and the time spent on homework after school are important determinants of their learning abilities. • The learning gap between private and government school students can be minimized by increasing their school attendance and time for homework. Do students attending private schools learn more and have higher cognitive abilities than their public school counterparts in India? Though some recent works have discussed this question, the empirical contours to address the issue remain unclear, particularly in a diversifying school education market in India. This paper examines the factors determining the inequality in children's learning outcomes (i.e., reading and math scores) in India using the second round of India Human Development Survey data. We examine the effect of a child's 'school absenteeism' and 'time spent for studying and doing homework' on learning outcomes, and how these explain the existing learning gap between private and government school children. We provide strong evidence that the children attending private schools have significantly better learning outcomes than their government school counterparts. However, this performance difference between private and government school-going children reduces with the increase in school attendance and the time spent in studying and doing homework by a child. The findings of the study implicate that the cognitive abilities of low performing government school students can be improved by reducing their absenteeism in schools and increasing time for studying and doing homework after school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• After focusing on expanding physical access for last few decades, India is confronting the challenge of 'small' schools and moving toward school closure or rationalisation. But potential impact of such a policy remains under-investigated. • 'Small' schools are situated in villages which are relatively backward compared to the villages in which non- 'small' schools are situated. Students attending 'small' schools have fewer alternatives in that village. • 'Small' schools have higher probability of multi-grade teaching and are less likely to have basic infrastructural facilities. • Learning outcomes of students in 'small' schools are not different than that of students in non- 'small' schools. • School rationalisation is likely to have adverse consequences on children's access to schooling without any gains as far as learning levels are concerned. Alarmed by declining enrolment in government schools and potentially adverse academic, administrative and fiscal consequences associated with it, policy makers in India have initiated experimenting with closure of government schools with low enrolments ('small' schools), an exercise commonly referred to as 'school rationalisation'. However, the impact of this policy on access to schooling and learning remains empirically unexplored. Utilising ASER 2014 data, this paper asks three key questions: (a) what are the characteristics of villages in which 'small' schools are located?, (b) what options would students have if 'small schools' were to be closed, and finally (c) what are the differences in characteristics of 'small' and non-'small' schools? Results indicate that the villages which have 'small' schools are more disadvantaged in terms of essential public services such as all-weather roads leading to village, availability of government health facilities or banks and post offices. Additionally, these villages are less likely to have an alternative to the 'small' school, either government or private. Results also show that 'small schools' are much more likely to have multi-grade teaching. They are less likely to have basic infrastructural facilities. Interestingly, learning levels are unlikely to be different in 'small' schools than non- 'small' schools even after controlling for child, household and village attributes. Thus, the analysis suggests that school rationalisation can potentially have severe consequences on children's access to schools without any meaningful impact on learning levels in a 'business as usual' scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]