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Purpose: This study aims to add a gender perspective to the current ecosystem of entrepreneurship education whereby an innovative model of the female entrepreneurship education ecosystem (FEEE) consisting of five stakeholders (university, government, society, enterprise and the international community) is examined. Design/methodology/approach: The study conducted an online questionnaire among 505 respondents from two universities and one higher vocational college in China. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the correlation between factors and structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to test the five hypotheses proposed in the study. Findings: The results indicated that the five stakeholders (the university, government, society, enterprise and international community) positively affect FEEE. The study emphasizes the urgent demand to consider gender perspectives in the ecosystem of entrepreneurship education and provides plausible ways to conduct female-targeted education with the joint efforts of different stakeholders. Practical implications: The study aims to increase the number of future female entrepreneurs, enhance the future skills of female students in the digital era and ultimately advance humankind. The study emphasizes the urgent demand to consider gender-perspective in the entrepreneurship education ecosystem and provides plausible ways to conduct female-targeted education with the joint efforts of different stakeholders. Originality/value: This paper sheds light on evaluating FEEE through five stakeholders' dimensions, which explores the solutions to the current female entrepreneurship education (FEE) issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the major planning and implementation practices that should be followed in a short term international study trip (IST). The focus throughout is on how to utilize experiential learning to establish cultural competence. Design/methodology/approach: The paper shows how to plan and manage an international MBA study trip to China using a specific case to illustrate the methods employed. Findings: The use of a highly structured approach to an experiential learning exercise combined with a focus on key elements of cultural competencies creates a positive environment and leads to significant focused learning. Originality/value: This paper fills three key gaps in the literature. First it uniquely focuses on the implementation of a conceptual framework that incorporates the types of cultural competency related learning that are to take place. Second, it illustrates how to design and implement an IST highlighting two key aspects of experiential learning: providing challenging experiences and encouraging reflection. Third, it focuses on a trip to China which, although one of the most popular destinations for business students, is lightly reviewed in the literature. This study fills a significant gap in the literature dealing with the management of short term study trips. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine individuals' levels of work ethic amongst current and recent university attendees across three countries. This article presents the results of a survey of 537 respondents from the United States of America, Korea and China, thus extending the previous research into work ethic, often conducted from a Western perspective. The comparative study aims to enhance the understanding of cross-cultural and gender differences and similarities whilst probing for the levels of work ethic amongst the respondents. Design/methodology/approach: A comparative research method was adopted because the authors' aim was to probe similarities and differences across three societies. Multiple analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests were utilised to explore gender and country-related differences. Cluster analysis was applied to probe for segments highly similar to each other in the levels of work ethic of the respondents. Findings: The results confirm the hypothesised differences between countries as well as across gender groups, with American females having the highest levels of work ethic, closely followed by Chinese males and females. Three distinct segments – low, medium and high levels of work ethic – were found in all three countries, indicating that there are individuals in each of the societies who could benefit from strategies for increasing the individuals' levels of work ethic. Originality/value: Novel gender comparisons of the three country groups revealed American females as having the highest levels of work ethic and Korean females the lowest, whilst the identification of clusters of low, medium and high levels of work ethic provides evidence of the need to increase levels of work ethic to enhance productivity, regardless of the country of origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to surface themes which may influence Chinese students' decision making in relation to postgraduate study in international universities. Design/methodology/approach: The study utilises a semi-structured qualitative interview methodology (n=15). Findings: The main findings are discussed according to the following themes: financial and time costs; employment prospects; postgraduate education as a cultural adventure; linguistics; visa issues; admissions; climate; influence of referents; and academic image and reputation. Research limitations/implications: The sample size is small, yet affords greater depth of data and discussion. Practical implications: The research offers practitioners in universities who are managing postgraduate recruitment of Chinese students, some greater understanding of the reasons behind prospective Chinese postgraduate students' choice; from which they can evaluate the effectiveness of their institutions' recruitment strategies. Originality/value: Extant research has tended to report reasons why Chinese students study overseas, whereas this study offers deeper insight and exploration of the reasoning of Chinese international students in the postgraduate context. The research is of value given the importance of postgraduate Chinese students to international university recruitment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to report on a case study of 93 parents’ attitude toward their involvement at various levels of school education in a special school. It also examines the relations between parents’ education backgrounds and different levels of parental involvement. Design/methodology/approach – This study adopted quantitative research approach. A questionnaire composed of 30 items under six scales was developed with reference to Ng’s (1999) six-level Model of Home-School Cooperation which was adopted to frame the study. Findings – The study indicates that parents’ inclined to be involved more outside the school including “two-way communication,” “supervision of children at home” and “participation in parent organizations and activities” than that inside the school such as “volunteering,” “providing advice on school policies” and “participating in decision making.” Research limitations/implications – In spite of its small scale in a case-study special school, the paper does not aim at generalization but illuminates how parental involvement was carried out. Practical implications – The study carries implications for school management and policy makers when promoting and implementing parental involvement in special schools. Originality/value – For the school personnel, a total and positive relationship could help enhance efficient and effective management of education. Second, more resources should be provided by the Education Bureau for special schools to educate parents and subsidize their involvement. Third, more training opportunities regarding knowledge and skills of parental involvement should be provided for frontline teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Motivated by the perceived disparity between supply and demand for skilled workers in STEM fields, namely, science, technology, engineering and math, the purpose of this paper is to conduct an empirical study of attitude and readiness for STEM education and careers among American and Chinese college students in business disciplines. The authors' findings point out that students in China and the USA have some significantly different perspectives of STEM maybe because they are prepared and inspired differently. These differences may have fundamentally impacted their attitude and readiness for pursuing a STEM career. Implications from this research project should be noteworthy to educators and academic administrators so that appropriate curricula and cultivation can be offered. Design/methodology/approach: The authors have decided to look into the situation using a comparison approach by surveying a randomly chosen group of college students from China and another from the USA and then analyzed their responses to the authors' delicately constructed survey in a hope of finding any patterns that may cause the authors to rethink about the authors' approaches to cultivating interest in STEM. Findings: The findings described in the paper should offer us some significant, though still preliminary, implications as follows: both American and Chinese students admire STEM careers, but feel rewarding differently; American students may have other career choices that may be equal or more rewarding while Chinese students choose STEM fields by following a cultural norm; having early exposure to science subjects and gaining relevant experience help grow interest in STEM among American students, but such exposure may bring about negative effect on career choices; American female students are at least as capable of succeeding in STEM as their male counterparts; American students seek more advice on their career choices than Chinese students who may follow a cultural norm. Advisory service from teachers and parents may impact differently from peer influence does; extracurricular activities can more positively affect interest in STEM than taking science courses. Research limitations/implications: Although the survey has collected responses from only business students in both countries, the resulting implications should reflect what a sizable segment of college students feel and think about STEM and thus should allow educators and institutional administrators to use as evidence in pursuing innovative curricula and advisory services that would better prepare our future students for STEM education and beyond, especially in those disciplines, like business administration, in which STEM skills are increasingly in demand. Practical implications: Some significant, though still preliminary, implications should be readily drawn from the study: first, both American and Chinese students admire STEM careers, but rewarding may mean different things to them. American students may have other career choices that may be equal or more rewarding per their definition of rewarding while Chinese students may pursue STEM fields by following a cultural norm rather than by considering it rewarding. Second, having early exposure to science subjects and gaining relevant experience can help grow interest in STEM among American students, but such exposure, especially taking science courses, may bring about negative effect on career choices. Extracurricular activities can more positively affect interest in STEM than taking science courses. Third, female students are at least as equally interested and capable of succeeding in STEM as their male counterparts, but their interest and confidence may be more vulnerable to challenges imposed by market reality and cultural bias. Fourth, American students seek more advice when available on their career choices than Chinese students do as the former may face more competing career choices and possess less preparation for STEM than the latter does. Finally, advisory service from teachers and parents may impact differently than the influence peers can perpetrate. Club activities when peers can naturally influence each other may be quite effective in promoting interest in and preparing readiness for STEM, and these activities are more effective to American students than Chinese students and to male students than female students. Originality/value: Nine hypotheses are proposed to validate through this empirical study. These hypotheses reflect thoughts upon the literature review and pertain to the factors that should impact STEM education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to explore the developing trend of higher pedagogy, to promote the research of higher pedagogy to be more canonical and scientific and to improve the higher education theory. Design/methodology/approach – The utility research uses a method of quantitative study, namely “content analysis”, to estimate and analyze the higher education theory literature on ten dimensionalities which include theme, author, abstract, keywords, subject, proposing of the issue, definition of key terms, research methods, conclusion, reference and annotations from 1996 to 2006 in China. Findings – The analysis of the selected 250 academic theses and reports in the field of higher education shows that academic research and theoretical standard have been improved, meanwhile academic criterion have been formed by degrees in higher pedagogy within ten years. At the same time, there are still some problems in the papers and reports the authors have selected such as title, key words, proposing of the issue, researching method and conclusion. Originality/value – This paper sums up the trend of research on higher education in China for the past ten years, and points out the problems in this trend and then proposes ways to improve the research of higher education in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper is a historical review of the development of private primary and secondary education in Hong Kong from 1841-2012. The purpose of this paper is to examine the evolving relationship between the state and private schools in Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach – This paper utilizes sources from published official documents, public data available on government websites, archival documents and newspapers. The authors also carried out a few individual interviews with legislators, government officials and principals who were familiar with the history of private education in Hong Kong. Findings – The colonial Hong Kong Government adopted laissez-faire policy in greater part of its rule until 1970s. The year 1978 marked the period of “state control” until the 1990s when privatization and deregulation emerged as a world trend in the governance of education. The role of government changed to that of “supervision” instead of “control.” Further, it is shown that the change of sovereignty did not avert the trend of decentralization, deregulation and privatization in education which is entrenched in the management of public affairs in human societies. Originality/value – The findings provides an illuminating look into the development of a society and how it grapples with the fundamental questions of the degree of social control and proper use of political power in a colonial setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the progress of the curriculum reform in Hong Kong in the implementation phase from 2001-2006, with the agreement and support of heads and teachers on the reform. Design/methodology/approach – Survey questionnaires and focus group interviews were used to collect data from various stakeholders. A stratified random sampling method was employed to select 150 primary schools and 120 secondary schools to participate in the study. Findings – It is found that with the agreement and support of school heads and teachers, there is good progress in the reform items on teaching and learning. Findings of this paper also suggest that teachers who agreed with the reform items made changes with their practices in terms of learning and teaching strategies, catering to learner diversity, assessment for learning, developing students' language proficiency, cross-curricula learning, playing multiple teachers' roles and preparation for the new senior secondary curriculum. This study thus supports most findings from the change literature with its empirical data that educational changes and innovations with the agreement and support of school heads and teachers tend to have a greater chance of succeeding. Originality/value – The paper contributes by examining to what extent findings and views established in change literature elsewhere can be justified and enriched with the case of Hong Kong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The foundations of internally driven discipline are similar to self-directed learning (SDL). This study examines the effect of cultural orientation and SDL on the online performance of college students. It investigates how college students pursue SDL while maintaining a collectivist cultural orientation in their learning experience. It explains why students prefer SDL to learning constrained by an externally enforced discipline. Design/methodology/approach: The explanatory sequential mixed-method design uses a quantitative method, followed by qualitative enquiry. The research was conducted in an undergraduate non-credit online course in China. Findings: The findings show that cultural orientation has no impact on students' online performance, while SDL abilities are positively related to it. When fully mediated by SDL, a horizontal-collectivist culture has a positive effect on students' online performance. Research limitations/implications: Data were collected in a non-credit online college course, where the final assessment used a peer-rating approach and team members shared the same final score. This scoring method may not fully reflect each student's online performance. Practical implications: The findings suggest that, when considering cultural influence on student performance, researchers should consider learning contexts, including educational level and learning mode. This study validates that colleges should focus on ability and skill development that enhance internal motivation to improve students' online performance, rather than focussing on their beliefs. Originality/value: This paper introduces evidence to support the impact of culture on college students' online performance, showing that SDL abilities can drive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to reform the multi-cultural education in China so as to construct a homogenous education model. Design/methodology/approach – Based on the appeal for multi-ethnic culture development of the era and the possibilities for constructing multi-cultural education in China, this paper proposed paths to construct multi-cultural education in China. Findings – First, this paper explains the reasons to construct a multi-cultural education in china: the intrinsic appeals for multi-ethnic culture development; the increasing culture exchange during economy transformation; foreign culture shock in the setting of globalization. Second, it indicates the possibilities for establishing multi-cultural education in China: the arrival of the multi-cultural era and the education ideal of “Unity without Uniformity.” Third, it points out the paths to construct Chinese multi-cultural education: to establish an educational policy with core socialist value; to perfect Chinese multi-cultural education policies; to construct a multi-cultural education model. Practical implications – This paper points out the paths to construct Chinese multi-cultural education: to establish an educational policy with core socialist value; to perfect Chinese multi-cultural education policies; to construct a multi-cultural education model. Originality/value – This paper analyzes the possibilities and paths for constructing multi-cultural education in China and would be helpful for reforming multi-cultural education in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to review the achievements of Chinese educational management in the past 30 years, conclude the characteristics of Chinese educational management and indicate the problems of Chinese educational management and the countermeasures. Design/methodology/approach – This paper reviews the research of educational management in China in the past 30 years from four aspects: research purpose, research methods, research contents and disciplinary system. Findings – The paper sums up the main achievements, the main characteristics and the main problems of Chinese educational management in the past 30 years. It suggests that the disciplinary relationship should be further clarified; the role of disciplinary research accomplishments has to be further developed and the specialization level in disciplinary research needs to be further improved. Practical implications – This paper indicates the direction for the construction of Chinese educational management in the future: to further clarify the relationship among related disciplines; to put the role of the research results into full play; to further improve the specialization level of disciplinary research. Originality/value – This paper contributes to the construction of Chinese educational management both theoretically and practically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The paper examines the effects of individual differences on the key motivational factors affecting Chinese study abroad students. Design/methodology/approach: The current study adopts a quantitative survey approach. Students are recruited through the largest online survey provider in China. Using 335 completed questionnaires and factor analysis, the key factors influencing Chinese students are identified. Subsequently, regressions are employed to analyse the impact of age, gender, socio-economic status, previous study or travel abroad experience, degree level and location on factor scores. Findings: This research sheds new light on the decision-making process of Chinese study abroad students. It is found that Chinese students are influenced by three key factors, social, cultural and economic environment, non-personal and personal recommendations. The results reveal that male students from the lowest socio-economic group rely on non-personal information to decide destination where they can significantly upgrade their socio-economic status. Personal recommendations are used by young persons aged between 18 and 24 and those without previous overseas travel or study experience. Originality/value: Although prior studies explore the motivations of Chinese study abroad students, very few focus on a large sample of students both in China and abroad and identify key factors using the statistical tool factor analysis. No research has been carried out to understand the impact of personal characteristics such as age, gender, prior study or travel abroad experience, degree level and location on significant factor scores. Such analysis is crucial for the financial stability of the international higher education market, particularly during the current COVID-19 crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to investigate vocational teaching behaviours in facilitating pedagogical practice concerning students' classroom engagement. Design/methodology/approach: A mixed-method approach with quantitative classroom observations and qualitative field notes was conducted at two higher vocational institutions in Guangdong province, south of China. Sixty lesson observations were rated combining with supplementary field notes from 20 teacher participants analysed through a comparative coding process. Findings: Means of dimensions of teaching behaviours and student engagement were calculated based on taking the averages of the means of items theoretically associated with each dimension. Through thematic analysis of observational notes, vocational instructions and students' engagement in vocational learning environment were more diversified in terms of vocational teaching practice, which manifested that vocational teaching behaviours focused more on adjusting students' practical learning. Research limitations: The limitation is shown that the quantitative sample is small, yet affords greater depth of data for further discussion. Originality/value: This study develops its setting and orientation by applying the classroom observation instrument into the Chinese high vocational context and offers more in-depth insights and exploration of the characteristics of teaching practice in vocational classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to trace the development of school autonomy and accountability and related multiple changes and impacts in key areas of school education in Hong Kong since implementing school-based management (SBM) from 1990s.Design/methodology/approach To explore the evolution and the uniqueness of autonomy and accountability in the Hong Kong school system, the paper begins with an historical account, followed by an evaluation of the effects of SBM as shown in policy documents, local research, international reviews and illustrative findings from a case study. The local and international implications of SBM for research and practice are then discussed.Findings This paper shows the links between school autonomy and accountability by exploring the potential effects of both of these factors on educational management and student achievement, which are increasingly emphasised in educational policies. The investigation shows that the assumed links and effects are not always consistent or empirically supported. The positive effects that school autonomy has on school governance and management, teachers’ work, school-based curriculums and student learning are all significant when there is also strong leadership, comprehensive continuous professional development and a positive, collaborative school climate. These key elements work alongside school autonomy to facilitate positive change.Research limitations/implications School autonomy and accountability should be viewed as necessary, but not sufficient, conditions for school improvement and development. Further characterisation of the processes happening in schools is needed to explore the different realisations of school autonomy and accountability.Originality/value This investigation of school autonomy and accountability in Hong Kong provides the international audience with a deeper understanding of the dynamics involved in the development of SBM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – To prepare Hong Kong students to face a rapidly changing twenty-first century, the Hong Kong Government implemented a major curriculum reform entitled Learning to Learn – The Way Forward in Curriculum Development. This reform has shaped the direction of Hong Kong's school education since 2001. The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the reform from the perspectives of the major stakeholders, namely principals, teachers, and students. Design/methodology/approach – The paper was written based on the data obtained from a large-scale study that covered over 250 primary and secondary schools, or about 20 per cent of the total population in Hong Kong. Both qualitative (focus group interviews) and quantitative methods (questionnaire survey) were employed in the study. Findings – The findings indicated that moderate progress has been made in students' overall performance in generic skills, positive values and attitudes, language proficiency, and over the key learning areas. On the other hand, the progress made in secondary schools was perceived to be less than that made in primary schools. The views of frontline teachers could also be different from senior teachers and principals as to the degree of achievement. There also existed a gap as the progress reported for critical thinking and self learning abilities might be less favourable when compared to those reported for IT, reading habits and healthy lifestyle. Originality/value – The original findings and policy suggestions of the paper are of reference value to curriculum policy planners, researchers and educators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This article aims to analyze inter-provincial disparities of rural education and the convergence rate, and to discuss the effects of compulsory education reform after 2001. Design/methodology/approach – The article estimates the rural average education years and education Gini coefficients of China's 31 provinces (municipalities) beside Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan from 2001 to 2008, and applies the method of "economic convergence". Findings – The results show that after the reform of rural compulsory education, inter-provincial rural education disparities and educational equality have been significantly improved and trend to convergence; nevertheless the convergence rate on inter-provincial disparities of education equality declines. The defects of the education input system – "county as principle" – has been a factor that restricts the coordinated development of rural education. Practical limitations – This paper suggests that it is necessary for China's provincial and central government to afford the expense of compulsory education. China's present investment system would also worsen inter-provincial inequities of education. Social implications – Education equality is one of the basic social priorities. In China education equality has been improved; however it could be better if China's provincial and central government afforded the expenses of compulsory education. Originality/value – This paper applies the method of "economic convergence" to analyze China's rural education disparities among its regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Building upon McLeod and Wainwright's paradigm for rigorous scientific assessment of study abroad programs, this paper aims to use social learning theory to assess mainland Chinese students' satisfaction of the Chinese Curtin Student Accounting Academic Programme. Design/methodology/approach – A sample of mainland Chinese students enrolled in Curtin units were invited to complete a short survey on their perspectives of the study abroad programme. Findings – The author's results suggest that preparation for study in Australia, in addition to differences between Australia and China concerning culture and technical teaching, is essential for a mainland Chinese student to flourish in the programme. Research limitations/implications – McLeod and Wainwright's social learning theory proposes that behaviour is predicted by the expectancy that if a person behaves in a certain way that person will be rewarded by the extent that the person values the reward. The expectancy which is linked to a local of control is reflected in the mainland Chinese students' preparation of studies in China. Social implications – Mainland Chinese students who feel they are better prepared for study in Australia showed higher satisfaction. Preparation is, therefore, an important factor in getting satisfaction out of the study abroad programme. Originality/value – The paper offers some helpful practical implications for managers and administrators wanting to continue the study abroad programmes. There is a clear need to convey to prospective students the need for sound preparation when students consider taking on a study abroad programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of the international mobility of mainland students in special administrative regions of China and in places outside China. Design/methodology/approach: There have been studies using the framework of push–pull and reverse push–pull factors to explore the movement of mainland students to North America, Australia, Singapore and Hong Kong. This study follows up by exploring such research directions in Macau, which is another special administrative region of China. Different from previous studies, the sample of this study came specifically from 130 students enrolling in teacher education undergraduate programs in Macau. Findings: In this study, using data collected from questionnaires and interviews, the factors affecting mainland student teachers' choice of Macau as a place for their undergraduate studies are examined. Other related issues such as the challenges these students face and their intentions after their graduation are also studied. Originality/value: The data collected for this study were primary and original, drawing specifically from students enrolling teacher education programs. Following the various studies on the global movement of mainland students, this study aimed at understanding mainland students' mobility pattern in one of China's special administration regions, Macau. In this regard, cultural identity and cultural factors were considered on top of other factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore the push-pull factors and motivations of African and Asian international students in Chinese universities. Design/methodology/approach: Concurrent mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) design was used. The quantitative component included 537 Africans and Asians from five notable universities, while the qualitative aspect consisted of 30 participants in Wuhan and few other cities in China. Findings: Findings revealed availability of scholarship opportunities, China's flexibility (visa and program entry) and perception of better education quality as important push-pull factors. It also discovered several new pull factors, including citizens' attitude and good report, development potential and hospitality and receptiveness, while career development and entertainment were found to be the most and least significant motivational factors, respectively. The study also found a significant relationship between push-pull factors and study abroad motivation (SAM) as well as cross-cultural differences between African and Asian students. Research limitations/implications: Most of the participants were drawn from Wuhan city. Hence, the findings cannot be outrightly generalized to other contexts. Practical implications: This research provides valuable knowledge for policy makers, higher education institutions, international students and other stakeholders in China to inform better student experience. Originality/value: There was no study found that combines push-pull factors and SAM or comparatively investigates African and international students in China. Knowledge about sojourners push-pull factors and motivations, their relationship and cross-cultural differences is essential for evidence-based interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Developing an enabling bureaucratic structure for school organization has been an important aim of education governance reforms in China, like many societies across the globe, since the 1990s. However, there is a lack of valid measures to investigate the extent to which the Chinese education governance reforms facilitate the development of the enabling structure of school bureaucracy and examine the antecedents and consequences of enabling school bureaucracy. Thus, the study was conducted to validate the Chinese version of the Enabling Structure Scale (ESS-Ch), which is used to assess school bureaucracy in China. Design/methodology/approach: The study surveyed 1,146 teachers enrolled in professional development courses provided by a Beijing university. The validation process involved two phases. In the first phase, the sample was divided into three subgroups for exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and cross-validation. In the second phase, reliability and validity were assessed utilizing the entire sample. Findings: It indicated a four-factor model of the ESS-Ch: enabling formalization, coercive formalization, enabling centralization and hindering centralization. Factor loadings ranged from 0.72 to 0.88, composite reliabilities ranged from 0.82 to 0.95 and values of average variance extracted ranged from 0.61 to 0.80. Research limitations/implications: The study contributes to the international literature by validating the ESS-Ch so as to provide a standard measure that can be applied in comparative studies on enabling school bureaucracy between Chinese and Western cultures. Originality/value: The study is original by validating the ESS-Ch based on a sample of 1,146 teachers in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study intends to investigate the determinants of learners' continuance intention to use massive open online courses (MOOCs) for personal or professional development. Design/methodology/approach: This study employed quantitative research design. The respondents were individual learners from six selected universities in China who used MOOCs for continuous learning. A purposive sampling technique was employed to obtain 270 valid samples. Data were analyzed and analytical outputs were produced using the techniques of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling and Importance-Performance Matrix. Findings: Expectation confirmation was found to have a positive relationship with perceived usefulness, flow experience, learning self-efficacy and satisfaction with MOOCs. Perceived usefulness, flow experience and leaning self-efficacy were also found to have a positive relationship with MOOC satisfaction. In addition, perceived usefulness, flow experience, learning self-efficacy and MOOC satisfaction had a positive impact on continuance usage intention. Originality/value: The outcomes of the study can serve as a practical reference for MOOC providers and decision-makers to develop relevant strategies to increase the course completion rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Like other nations in Asia, mainland China has undergone continuous reforms in its economic, political and social institutions over the past two decades. These changes are also reflected in its education system, which has been both the target of government reforms and an agent for social change. In this context, China's Ministry of Education has cast school principals as key actors in leading and managing change in schools at the local level throughout the country. The purpose of this paper is to explore how Chinese school leaders successfully respond to the implementation of educational reform. Design/methodology/approach – In this paper the authors explore how school leaders in one city in South China perceive their roles and actions in fostering successful change. The study employed extensive literature review with qualitative interviews of five school principals who had demonstrated success at leading change in their schools. Findings – The findings of both the literature review and interview study unexpectedly found more similarities than differences between how leaders contribute to successful change in China as compared with the Western literature. Research limitations/implications – The research findings are limited by two main features. First, the sources analyzed in the literature review were of highly varying quality. Moreover, relatively few employed replicable analytical methods capable of generalization. These limitations of the literature mean that the results of the review can only be interpreted as suggestive rather than conclusive. Second, the interview study was framed as an effort to further explore the trends of the literature review. Although the findings from the small-scale interview study were consistent with the broader Chinese literature, the research design suffers form the same limitations as the general literature. Therefore, these findings must also be treated as emergent rather than explanatory. Practical implications – The paper identifies directions for future research and discusses implications for school leaders in implementing educational change in China. Originality/value – The originality of this study lies in its attempt to synthesize a previously inaccessible literature on change leadership in Chinese schools. Despite China's rising role as a global leader, the literature in educational leadership and management remains sparse and largely unknown to Western scholars. Therefore, the study's limitations are balanced by the need to provide better descriptions of current practices employed by leaders as they attempt to improve China's schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify the influence of cultural differences on the design and management of two franchise programs and one joint degree program run by a Chinese university in partnership with a British university and a French university. The cross-cultural challenges and the differences in the strategies taken by the managers in both types of program to deal with such challenges are analyzed. The frameworks for such strategies are also proposed.Design/methodology/approach A case study approach was used for the analysis. Participatory observation and interview were adopted to collect information in combination with the written reports on the programs. The interviewees included managers, faculty members, and students. Thematic analysis was conducted to find out the common themes from the coded data.Findings For franchise programs, the British university takes a “collaborating” strategy focusing on globalization, which is combined with the “compromising” strategy of the Chinese partner university focusing on localization. Both parties keep their different styles of management and combine them into one new management mode. By contrast, in the joint degree program, the French management mode can be described as a “collaborating” strategy toward the management of the Chinese students and curriculum, while the Chinese managers are seeking to progressively “accommodate” the needs of the French students.Originality/value Few studies in the current literature are targeted at the cultural influences on the design and management of transnational higher education (TNHE) programs as well as the proper management strategies to deal with such cultural differences. The result of this study will provide useful advice for researchers and practitioners in cross-cultural management of TNHE programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to study how reflection affects the teacher change with a focus on teaching practices under education reforms in Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach This study adopted narratives as the research design to unveil the contents of teachers' reflection and how the contents affect their change in teaching practices under education reforms. Findings The study finds that teachers' reflection starts with completion of curriculum ("technical level"), then consideration of students' learning needs ("practical level") and finally, the social justice and equality ("critical level"). The levels of reflection teachers engage have significant influence on their change. The higher the level of reflection teachers have, the more motivated the teachers to explore new teaching practices not only for the learning needs of students in classroom but also for the society outside classroom. Originality/value This study underlines the value of reflection in the process of teacher change in their teaching practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine language, academic, social-cultural and financial adjustments facing mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach – The current study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods and included over 300 mainland Chinese students from seven major universities in Hong Kong. In addition to a survey questionnaire, in-depth interviews were also conducted. Purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to recruit participants. Findings – The findings indicate that though mainland Chinese students were satisfied with the quality of Hong Kong's higher education, many expressed that they were having language, academic, social and cultural, and financial challenges during their stay in Hong Kong. The results are consistent with the current literature to a large extent with some variations. Few differences were found by gender and between undergraduate and graduate students. Research limitations/implications – Two thirds of the sample was undergraduate students and only one third graduate students. Future research may want to include an equal number of participants from both groups to get a more balanced view. In addition, since the sample of our sub-degree students was very small, generalization to this group will be inappropriate. Future studies are needed to explore the unique challenges facing these mainland Chinese students who are pursuing their sub-degree in Hong Kong. Originality/value – Most of the current research is limited to mainland Chinese students studying in Western countries, such as the USA, the UK and Australia. Few studies to date examine adjustment problems of mainland Chinese students studying in Hong Kong. There is a need, therefore, to deepen our understanding of the major adjustment issues experienced by these mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine gender identities of Chinese male and female middle leaders in secondary schools and how gender dynamics play in the leadership process and impact on career aspirations and career development. Design/methodology/approach – This paper draws on the data of a larger qualitative study conducted using the life history approach. Cases of four male and female middle leaders, which are able to demonstrate the "efficacy" of life stories to enhancing our appreciation of the process of gender negotiation and the impact of gender dynamics on leadership behaviour, are reported. Findings – Evidence suggests that traditional Chinese gender identities played out in the leader-follower relationships although signs of hybrid gender identities were also evident in some cases. Gender identities and the family role perception of the middle leaders have impact on their career aspirations and development. Research limitations/implications – Findings yield implications for the professional development needs of Chinese middle leaders not only regarding their professional role but also their personal understanding of how gender identities and family role perception impact on their career development. Further study with overlapping and complementary methods to a larger sample could be more illuminating to this complex and multifaceted issue. Originality value – In the context of global concerns about the shortage of leader talent, the present study illuminates gender identities and the dynamics of the interactions between Chinese superiors and subordinates of different sexes and adds perspective to the leadership development literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The objective of this paper was to examine key hindering and facilitating factors in schools during the first stage of the curriculum reform (2001-2006) in Hong Kong and to identify key strategies to address these challenges. Design/methodology/approach – A total of 150 primary and 120 secondary schools with 7,869 key stakeholders including principals, curriculum leaders, teachers, and students participated in the study. The data for this study was collected from the following two major methods: survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. The response rate was 95 percent. Findings – In spite of the different roles played by each stakeholder in the curriculum reform, the perceptions of school principals, curriculum leaders, and teachers were very similar with regards to the factors that facilitated and hindered their successful implementation of the reform. Consistent with the current literature, the findings clearly indicated that the recent curriculum reform in Hong Kong was still facing several key obstacles and challenges that were common in many other countries, in the implementation stage, such as teachers' heavy workloads, learning diversity in class, and teachers' inadequate understanding of the reform. Originality/value – The study is important in that this was the first large-scale study ever conducted to examine the progress of the recent curriculum reform in Hong Kong. The findings of the results generate important policy recommendations that may improve the implementation of the curriculum reform in the next phase and contribute to the related literature in the areas of curriculum reform not only in Hong Kong but also other parts of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The main purpose of the present paper is twofold: to examine and compare the current strategies and policies that are employed by the UK, Australia and Singapore and to recommend appropriate strategies and policies to higher education institutions and the Hong Kong government and elsewhere that are interested in expanding their efforts in recruiting the growing number of students from other countries who are planning to study overseas. Design/methodology/approach -- The data for this project were obtained primarily from documents and in-depth interviews. Documents include government reports, policy addresses, official statistics, etc. The in-depth interviews were conducted in Hong Kong as well as in the four studied cities -- Mumbai, New Delhi, Jakarta, and Kuala Lumpur. Interviewees included government officials, academics, higher education institutions' representatives, consultant generals, and officials from policy bodies. Findings -- It is clear from the findings of this present study that a set of favorable policies and strategies at the national level was behind the success of these competitors. Such policies are not confined to educational policies but are extended to population and employment policies. Research limitations/implications -- Though the study examined policies and strategies employed by three countries, findings from the study may generate useful information to countries that may be interested in exporting their higher education to Asian markets. Practical implications -- The paper suggests that if Hong Kong is to attain success in becoming an international exporter of education services, it may need to adopt favorable policies at institute and system level, and in so doing it can definitely benefit by carefully studying the strategies and policies employed by these three competitors. Originality/value -- Few studies have examined and compared strategies and policies employed by these three key major players of higher education services. This study provides some useful strategies and policy recommendation to education decision makers in Hong Kong and elsewhere that may be interested in entering Asian markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses how mergers of Chinese colleges and universities affect their production of knowledge as measured by the ability of colleges to conduct research. The authors utilized factor analysis to study a random sample of colleges which had participated in mergers with research capability measured by indicators such as the number of research and development (R&D) faculty, the amount of academic papers and books published and the amount of funding for research projects. A time series of analysis of results was also conducted. The authors note that overall research capability has improved while research faculty efficiency and funding efficiency increased briefly following the mergers. They note how universities have changed to focus on social development.

Purpose – This paper aims to examine the significance of, difficulties with, and issues driving the change process of curriculum innovations as well as the roles of leadership both in formal and informal structures that could facilitate the process in Hong Kong preschools. Design/methodology/approach – With the aid of an illustrative case study, this paper discusses the implementation of a new assessment system in a local preschool and its complexity of the management of change process. Findings – This paper illustrates the problems of technical and quick-fix approach to change that disregards the political and cultural variables existing within the school environment. If the approach for change focuses only on the "know-how" aspect of the new assessment system, it is likely that only some superficial changes would be made and the new practices would hardly be institutionalized as an on-going part of the school system. Originality/value – Minimal research on management and leadership in preschools has been conducted in Hong Kong. The illustration of this case study follows other studies in the literature in revealing the important links between leadership and curricular innovations. It is argued that the developing role of leadership in creating structures for collaborative participation and promoting school culture is fundamental in this rapid-changing educational context. From a wider perspective, sustainable development of the preschool field should not and cannot wholly rely on the efforts of individual schools. The strategic alignment of external support from a central agency and partnership with higher education institutes are the important factors contributing to school improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate Chinese teachers’ attitudes toward performance pay. Specifically, this study examined the extent to which Chinese teachers supported performance-pay programs. The study also examined the effects of these programs on teachers, particularly on their levels of collaboration, work motivation, and job stress. Design/methodology/approach – This research was conducted in a northeastern city of China. Criteria sampling and maximum variation sampling techniques were used to select three schools, representing different characteristics of teacher performance pay (TPP) programs. In all, 150 questionnaires were administered to each of the three schools. The questionnaire contained three parts. Part 1 asked about respondents’ overall attitude toward pay-for-performance in general. Part 2 was composed of 20 closed-ended items asking respondents to rate their levels of agreement with various aspects of implementation of performance pay. Part 3 of the questionnaire comprised open-ended items. Findings – Approximately 48.5 percent of the teachers supported the teacher-performance-pay programs. This indicated a low support of Chinese teachers in comparison to that in some countries. Regarding how teachers’ attitudes toward performance pay are related to teacher characteristics (e.g. teaching experience, professional ranking), the ANOVAs results showed no significant differences in any of the factors. This quantitative result was different from the qualitative result of this study (e.g. veteran teachers complained about the implementation of performance pay). In spite of the differences between quantitative and qualitative findings, some findings from the current study are consistent with those found in western countries. Research limitations/implications – One limitation of this study was the small sample size for quantitative analyses. Future research should consider a larger sample size to conduct more advanced statistical analyses such as structural equation modeling to examine further the relations among, for example, how much the incentive pay should be, and what proportion of teachers should receive it, the level of teacher stress, their work enthusiasm, and peer relationships. Another limitation of this study was that the qualitative data were collected through open-ended questions of the questionnaire. Future research should interview teachers and principals to obtain richer voices from the teachers. Originality/value – Very few articles published in Chinese journals surveyed the implementation of TPP. In addition, these few articles were not well-designed from an empirical sense. So far research of teacher opinions about performance pay was a missing area in China’s educational discourse. The present study provides information to non-Chinese readers who are interested in Chinese teachers’ attitudes toward TPP. It is hoped the present study adds knowledge to the literature of TPP from the perspective of Chinese teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how the effects of 8Ps of services marketing affect students’ selection of self-financing sub-degree programmes in Hong Kong. The factors that affect students’ selection of self-financing sub-degree programmes have not been studied in higher education market of Hong Kong. This research is to fill the gap by examining the effects of 8Ps (“Product Elements”, “Price and Other User Outlays”, “Place and Time”, “Promotion and Education”, “People”, “Process”, “Physical Environment” and “Productivity and Quality”) on self-financing sub-degree programmes in Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach – The research taken was a quantitative survey of students at Community College at Lingnan University in Hong Kong. Findings – The results reveal that “Productivity and Quality” is the most important element of 8Ps of services marketing. Accreditation of programmes seeking recognition in Hong Kong and overseas can increase student enrolment. “Promotion and Education” element is the least important element of 8Ps of services marketing. Self-financed higher education institutions should develop strategies to build relationships with the secondary school teachers and counsellors rather than invest money on advertising. Research limitations/implications – The data were collected from a particular community college in Hong Kong only. Practical implications – Management can increase student recruitment by allocating minimum amount of limited resources to recruit maximum number of students. Originality/value – This research adds knowledge to the marketing of higher education in Hong Kong. The management of self-financing sub-degree programmes can use the findings of this research as a reference to develop their marketing strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Motivated by the perceived disparity between supply and demand for skilled workers in STEM fields, namely, science, technology, engineering and math, the purpose of this paper is to conduct an empirical study of attitude and readiness for STEM education and careers among American and Chinese college students in business disciplines. The authors' findings point out that students in China and the USA have some significantly different perspectives of STEM maybe because they are prepared and inspired differently. These differences may have fundamentally impacted their attitude and readiness for pursuing a STEM career. Implications from this research project should be noteworthy to educators and academic administrators so that appropriate curricula and cultivation can be offered. Design/methodology/approach: The authors have decided to look into the situation using a comparison approach by surveying a randomly chosen group of college students from China and another from the USA and then analyzed their responses to the authors' delicately constructed survey in a hope of finding any patterns that may cause the authors to rethink about the authors' approaches to cultivating interest in STEM. Findings: The findings described in the paper should offer us some significant, though still preliminary, implications as follows: both American and Chinese students admire STEM careers, but feel rewarding differently; American students may have other career choices that may be equal or more rewarding while Chinese students choose STEM fields by following a cultural norm; having early exposure to science subjects and gaining relevant experience help grow interest in STEM among American students, but such exposure may bring about negative effect on career choices; American female students are at least as capable of succeeding in STEM as their male counterparts; American students seek more advice on their career choices than Chinese students who may follow a cultural norm. Advisory service from teachers and parents may impact differently from peer influence does; extracurricular activities can more positively affect interest in STEM than taking science courses. Research limitations/implications: Although the survey has collected responses from only business students in both countries, the resulting implications should reflect what a sizable segment of college students feel and think about STEM and thus should allow educators and institutional administrators to use as evidence in pursuing innovative curricula and advisory services that would better prepare our future students for STEM education and beyond, especially in those disciplines, like business administration, in which STEM skills are increasingly in demand. Practical implications: Some significant, though still preliminary, implications should be readily drawn from the study: first, both American and Chinese students admire STEM careers, but rewarding may mean different things to them. American students may have other career choices that may be equal or more rewarding per their definition of rewarding while Chinese students may pursue STEM fields by following a cultural norm rather than by considering it rewarding. Second, having early exposure to science subjects and gaining relevant experience can help grow interest in STEM among American students, but such exposure, especially taking science courses, may bring about negative effect on career choices. Extracurricular activities can more positively affect interest in STEM than taking science courses. Third, female students are at least as equally interested and capable of succeeding in STEM as their male counterparts, but their interest and confidence may be more vulnerable to challenges imposed by market reality and cultural bias. Fourth, American students seek more advice when available on their career choices than Chinese students do as the former may face more competing career choices and possess less preparation for STEM than the latter does. Finally, advisory service from teachers and parents may impact differently than the influence peers can perpetrate. Club activities when peers can naturally influence each other may be quite effective in promoting interest in and preparing readiness for STEM, and these activities are more effective to American students than Chinese students and to male students than female students. Originality/value: Nine hypotheses are proposed to validate through this empirical study. These hypotheses reflect thoughts upon the literature review and pertain to the factors that should impact STEM education.

Purpose: In recent times, many universities have been pressured to become heavily involved in university branding. The purpose of this paper is to investigate students' perceptions of different international universities (brands) in terms of important university attributes, including the country in which the university's main campus is located and educational programs are designed (COD) and the method by which the educational services are distributed internationally (DM). Design/methodology/approach: Using a conjoint simulation procedure, this paper predicts the impact that university attributes have on Malaysian and Chinese students' preferences for international universities. Findings: The results suggest that, although COD and DM are important factors, the extent to which these factors dominate student preference differs significantly across students according to nationality. Research limitations/implications: The simulation suggests how international universities can improve their branding strategies, and highlights the need to understand students' preferences when developing marketing strategies. Originality/value: Past research has compared the importance of university attributes across countries from the perspective of students, but failed to assess this issue in the light of existing university brands (at an institutional or country level). Such knowledge can provide an indication of student preferences and competitive performance, which are of great interest to education marketers. The present study predicts the impact of various university attributes on Malaysian and Chinese students' preferences for specific international universities (brands) in four different countries, and changes in preference that occur when the style of delivery or course suitability is altered.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to find out what are the effective school principal leadership (ESPL) factors or indicators that Chinese teachers consider or expect. It explains how and why ESPL factors are important for effective school improvement (ESI). It tries to expand the domain knowledge of ESPL. Design/methodology/approach – The questionnaires consisted of eight factors and 40 indicators. The rating instrument was a five point Likert Scale (from 1 to 5). In total, 100 school teachers in Liaoning Province of mainland China were participated and surveyed. Factor analysis, t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyze the collected data. Findings – This study provides empirical insights about what ESPL factors that Chinese teachers considered. According to the results of t-test and one-way ANOVA, there were no significant differences between and among the respondents’ gender, areas and years of teaching experiences in rating the ESPL factors. The findings argue that the 16 extracted ESPL indicators have not only revealed the expectations of Chinese teachers toward their school principals, but also have drawn a three-dimensional-image of what a good and effective school principal should be. From the Chinese teachers’ eyes, a good school principal should not only possess good managerial skills in the aspects of time and routine work (such as self management, time management, influence, decision making and commitment) but also should possess good emotional intelligence, human skills, more attentiveness and consideration toward the needs of their followers (such as comfort, communication skills and empathy, etc.). Practical implications – This study provides implications for all school stakeholders, particularly for school principals, school leaders and educational managers both in and outside of schools. A good school principal should possess good ESPL characters/factors. If not, at least he/she should be aware of the ESPL characters/factors and actively adopt or adapt them. Thus the ESPL factors or indicators extracted from this study can be served as a mirror and a useful knowledge. Originality/value – This study belongs to very few of this kind of researches carried out in mainland China. Its findings have made some contributions to the ESPL research in mainland China, to the research of school leadership and ESI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – It is a very prominent problem that Chinese universities lack school-running characteristics. In the past ten years, because of undergraduate teaching assessment requirements of the Ministry of Education, universities attach great importance to school-running characteristics. What is the reality and how to improve the effectiveness of creating the school-running characteristics of universities? It is a problem that needs to be solved. The purpose of this paper is to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – Using the survey method, literature study, case studies and other methods, this study reviewed ten years of school-running characteristics construction and explored some laws of creating school-running characteristics. Findings – This study found although universities in China are beginning to attach great importance to the school-running characteristics, but they are still staying in the summarization of characteristics. School-running characteristics are very rough. Creating school-running characteristics are mainly efforts responding to the superior government. Creating school-running characteristics should be based on category characteristic. Universities need to change in competition and create characteristics within its history and culture. Universities need to refine the core idea of education, develop a big picture and then renew them in the assessment cycle. Originality/value – The originality of this study was that it put forward some new laws including changing from summarizing to creating its own school-running characteristics, putting category characteristic as the prerequisite and considering the core idea of education as the focus of school-running characteristics. This research will enrich the theory building of higher education research and has some value in promoting the creation of school-running characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to report a qualitative study exploring how parents have been included in school governance in Hong Kong and in what ways their roles have been evolving in state education. Design/methodology/approach – The qualitative method was adopted in this exploratory study, the findings of which help provide insights for conceptualization of phases of progression of the development of how parents have been included in state education in Hong Kong. The method of exploration is two-fold. First, evidence was obtained through examining Hong Kong's educational policy documents with regard to parent-school relations in the last two decades and taking reference to the literature and research studies on parent involvement in Hong Kong. Second, two focus group interviews were conducted with parents and teachers respectively, in order to obtain data of development of the relationship between home and school in times of reforms. Findings – Derived from the findings, four phases of development of how parents are included in school governance are conceptualized. They are: parents as unwelcome guests – separate responsibilities; parents as volunteers – encouraging participation; parents as clients: accountability approach; and parents as school governors – shared responsibilities. The issue of whether including parents in school governance is reality or rhetoric emerging from the data was discussed. Originality/value – The findings of this study contribute to the international studies on parent involvement in school governance, so as to formulate an effective policy that helps facilitate parents as "real" but not "rhetorical" school governors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Previous research on pedagogical reforms has seldom looked at how reform may contribute to aggression in school organizations. The purpose of this paper is to hypothesize that teachers' disengagement from school mediates the tendency for teachers to manifest aggression when they are implementing pedagogical reform in school. Behind this hypothesis is the assumption that people are bound to encounter obstacles when implementing changes, and the resultant frustration can easily grow into feelings of disengagement and aggression which block the changes. Design/methodology/approach – In total, 845 teachers in 30 secondary schools in Hong Kong were surveyed and path analysis employed to look at how constraint in an organization and feeling of disengagement within the school hampers the successful implementation of reform towards constructivist pedagogy. Findings – Results of the study suggest that feelings of disengagement amplify the negative impact of instructional change and cause aggressive impulses within the school to intensify, but support from school can significantly reduce the feelings of disengagement and constraint experienced by teachers. Findings of the study contribute to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of change and its impacts on school organizations. Originality/value – Although some studies have looked at workplace aggression in a school setting, there is no work being done to look at how mandated school reform contributes to workplace aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships between education and competencies from a comparative view, while controlling for background characteristics (e.g. parental education), home features (e.g. income) and country fixed effect. Design/methodology/approach: This paper utilises an international data sets of 12 Belt and Road (B&R) countries participating in the PIAAC survey. Data are examined using regression models with "REPSET" Stata code. The focus on B&R countries is interesting as this recent economic and strategic development alliance might transform the contemporary global balance of power. Therefore, examining its educational development is important. Findings: Findings reveal the higher the level of education, the higher the competency level in numeracy and literacy. Age was found to be negatively related to competencies, and gender was found to be dually significant. Among the examined B&R countries, Slovenia, Russia and Israel contribute the most to the numeracy, literacy and problem solving competencies (respectively) compared with other countries. The findings might contribute to the design of education for development policies aimed at increasing the level of state competitiveness while accounting for social cohesiveness. Originality/value: The paper provides a comparative study into educational development of the B&R alliance, and therefore offers an insight of the developmental cooperation as it emerges. The focus on the B&R initiative is important as it is a strategic development alliance which might transform the contemporary global balance of power. Therefore, the examination of the above-mentioned relationships with the focus on B&R countries might advance the strategic design of this cooperation.

Purpose – The relationship between participation and job performance has captured the interest of not only business researchers but also education researchers. However, the topic has not gained significant attention in the educational management research arena. The purpose of this paper is to empirically examine the impact of participation in decision making on lecturer performance in higher education. Design/methodology/approach – Mail survey was used to collect the data. Open-ended questionnaires were distributed to the lecturers in Yogyakarta Province in Indonesia. A total of 347 usable questionnaires were obtained which is about 46.3 percent rate of return. Factor analysis was used to identify the constructs. All Cronbach's alpha values are more than 0.7 and factor loading is more than 0.50. Regression analysis was employed to test research hypotheses. In addition, t-test and ANOVA test were also conducted to investigate the different impact of demographic data on the job performance of the lecturers. Findings – This study finds that participative decision making and academic rank have significant effect on lecturer performance. This finding implies that involving lecturers in educational decision making would be useful to improve not only lecturer performance but also organizational performance. In addition, among all demographic variables taken into account, only academic rank significantly affects lecturer performance. Research limitations/implications – This study assumes constant the reward system and performance appraisal factors that might affect the relationship between participation and lecturer performance. The research findings urge the Indonesian government to immediately set an order of a participative decision making system to facilitate the realization of a better quality of Indonesian higher education performance. Originality/value – Participative decision making is a tool to align an organization's vision and a lecturer's objectives. The higher the level of lecturer's participation in decision making the higher the lecturer's commitment to the organization's vision and the higher the lecturer's performance will be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines one study which tests the effectiveness of the proposed Fairclough model of critical discourse analysis in exploring a specific policy text implemented by the Hong Kong government for the reformation of pre-primary education. For testing purposes, the proposed model was applied to the so-called specific policy text. Data analysis reveals that the new model is effective in providing a useful analytical tool for analyzing the complexities of the policy development process. It claims that the new model has been able to detect key tensions brought by the new policy.

Numerous school reforms have failed to pursue educational effectiveness and quality in different parts of the world because of the ignorance of the multiplicity of school functions in the rapidly changing environment and the lack of understanding o f the internal school process. This paper aims to propose a framework for developing a new knowledge base for re-engineering schools. The framework requests new knowledge about multiple school functions including technical/economic function, human/social , political, cultural, and educational functions at the individual, institutions, community, society, and international levels in the new century. The understanding of these functions and their inter-relations is necessary for policy development and form ulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to examine the impact of a student teaching internship program on the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers in China. Design/methodology/approach: With 1,367 participants, structural equation modelling was used to evaluate the fit of the hypothetical model and a latent path analysis was conducted to identify the relationship among various variables. Findings: The results suggested that the program had a significant impact on efficacy in terms of personal skills, general teaching skills and personal qualities of the student interns concerned. Although this study was set in rural China, the findings of this study offered insights for teacher education in other places. Originality/value: To the best of our knowledge, no research studies have been conducted on this in-service teacher training program in a systematic and comprehensive way using a large sample size and involving all major stakeholders. The aim of the present study is to fill this gap, by exploring the experience of a large cohort of pre-service teachers participating in this student teaching internship program. Studying the experiences of these student teachers will illuminate some of the key challenges faced and how they impacted their teaching and learning during their teaching practices in rural areas. The findings may help teacher education institutions to review and enhance their existing approaches to teaching practices and professional development initiatives not only in rural China but in similar contexts in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to evaluate and determine the effectiveness of university education on the economy of various countries. Design/methodology/approach: To determine the necessity and expedience of making provision for the effectiveness of university education on the market economy, this work uses the method of regression and correlation analysis. Evaluation of effectiveness of the system of university education is performed separately for students, state, and employers by taking as example countries with specially developed formulas. Findings: The authors substantiate the necessity for provision of effectiveness of university education on the market economy, view the effective system of university education as a basis for the development of a knowledge economy, determine approaches to evaluate the effectiveness of university education on the market economy, perform evaluation of effectiveness of the system of university education by the example of various countries, determine its connection with indicators of economic growth and development, and provide recommendations for provision of effectiveness of the system of university education on modern market economies. Practical implications: The practical value of results of the conducted research consists in the possibility to use the developed formulas for determining the level of effectiveness of the system of university education on various countries of the world. Originality/value: Theoretical value of this paper consists in the possibility for the application of authors' conclusions and recommendations in the process of development of the policy of management of effectiveness of university education system.

Purpose: This paper is a historical review of the development of private primary and secondary education in Hong Kong from 1841-2012. The purpose of this paper is to examine the evolving relationship between the state and private schools in Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach: This paper utilizes sources from published official documents, public data available on government websites, archival documents and newspapers. The authors also carried out a few individual interviews with legislators, government officials and principals who were familiar with the history of private education in Hong Kong. Findings: The colonial Hong Kong Government adopted laissez-faire policy in greater part of its rule until 1970s. The year 1978 marked the period of "state control" until the 1990s when privatization and deregulation emerged as a world trend in the governance of education. The role of government changed to that of "supervision" instead of "control." Further, it is shown that the change of sovereignty did not avert the trend of decentralization, deregulation and privatization in education which is entrenched in the management of public affairs in human societies. Originality/value: The findings provides an illuminating look into the development of a society and how it grapples with the fundamental questions of the degree of social control and proper use of political power in a colonial setting.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine individuals' levels of work ethic amongst current and recent university attendees across three countries. This article presents the results of a survey of 537 respondents from the United States of America, Korea and China, thus extending the previous research into work ethic, often conducted from a Western perspective. The comparative study aims to enhance the understanding of cross-cultural and gender differences and similarities whilst probing for the levels of work ethic amongst the respondents. Design/methodology/approach: A comparative research method was adopted because the authors' aim was to probe similarities and differences across three societies. Multiple analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests were utilised to explore gender and country-related differences. Cluster analysis was applied to probe for segments highly similar to each other in the levels of work ethic of the respondents. Findings: The results confirm the hypothesised differences between countries as well as across gender groups, with American females having the highest levels of work ethic, closely followed by Chinese males and females. Three distinct segments -- low, medium and high levels of work ethic -- were found in all three countries, indicating that there are individuals in each of the societies who could benefit from strategies for increasing the individuals' levels of work ethic. Originality/value: Novel gender comparisons of the three country groups revealed American females as having the highest levels of work ethic and Korean females the lowest, whilst the identification of clusters of low, medium and high levels of work ethic provides evidence of the need to increase levels of work ethic to enhance productivity, regardless of the country of origin.

Purpose: This study aims to add a gender perspective to the current ecosystem of entrepreneurship education whereby an innovative model of the female entrepreneurship education ecosystem (FEEE) consisting of five stakeholders (university, government, society, enterprise and the international community) is examined. Design/methodology/approach: The study conducted an online questionnaire among 505 respondents from two universities and one higher vocational college in China. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the correlation between factors and structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to test the five hypotheses proposed in the study. Findings: The results indicated that the five stakeholders (the university, government, society, enterprise and international community) positively affect FEEE. The study emphasizes the urgent demand to consider gender perspectives in the ecosystem of entrepreneurship education and provides plausible ways to conduct female-targeted education with the joint efforts of different stakeholders. Practical implications: The study aims to increase the number of future female entrepreneurs, enhance the future skills of female students in the digital era and ultimately advance humankind. The study emphasizes the urgent demand to consider gender-perspective in the entrepreneurship education ecosystem and provides plausible ways to conduct female-targeted education with the joint efforts of different stakeholders. Originality/value: This paper sheds light on evaluating FEEE through five stakeholders' dimensions, which explores the solutions to the current female entrepreneurship education (FEE) issues.

Purpose: Building upon McLeod and Wainwright's paradigm for rigorous scientific assessment of study abroad programs, this paper aims to use social learning theory to assess mainland Chinese students' satisfaction of the Chinese Curtin Student Accounting Academic Programme. Design/methodology/approach: A sample of mainland Chinese students enrolled in Curtin units were invited to complete a short survey on their perspectives of the study abroad programme. Findings: The author's results suggest that preparation for study in Australia, in addition to differences between Australia and China concerning culture and technical teaching, is essential for a mainland Chinese student to flourish in the programme. Research limitations/implications: McLeod and Wainwright's social learning theory proposes that behaviour is predicted by the expectancy that if a person behaves in a certain way that person will be rewarded by the extent that the person values the reward. The expectancy which is linked to a local of control is reflected in the mainland Chinese students' preparation of studies in China. Social implications: Mainland Chinese students who feel they are better prepared for study in Australia showed higher satisfaction. Preparation is, therefore, an important factor in getting satisfaction out of the study abroad programme. Originality/value: The paper offers some helpful practical implications for managers and administrators wanting to continue the study abroad programmes. There is a clear need to convey to prospective students the need for sound preparation when students consider taking on a study abroad programme. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Purpose: This article aims to analyze inter-provincial disparities of rural education and the convergence rate, and to discuss the effects of compulsory education reform after 2001. Design/methodology/approach: The article estimates the rural average education years and education Gini coefficients of China's 31 provinces (municipalities) beside Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan from 2001 to 2008, and applies the method of "economic convergence". Findings: The results show that after the reform of rural compulsory education, inter-provincial rural education disparities and educational equality have been significantly improved and trend to convergence; nevertheless the convergence rate on inter-provincial disparities of education equality declines. The defects of the education input system--"county as principle"--has been a factor that restricts the coordinated development of rural education. Practical limitations: This paper suggests that it is necessary for China's provincial and central government to afford the expense of compulsory education. China's present investment system would also worsen inter-provincial inequities of education. Social implications: Education equality is one of the basic social priorities. In China education equality has been improved; however it could be better if China's provincial and central government afforded the expenses of compulsory education. Originality/value: This paper applies the method of "economic convergence" to analyze China's rural education disparities among its regions. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)