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Health translation has gotten considerable attention recently because language diversity in multilingual societies often leads to language barriers. The present study evaluates the linguistic comprehensibility of translations in the "Health Translations Website" from the Victorian Government of Australia using the patient-oriented and culturally-appropriate health translation model (POCA). Seven documents were randomly chosen from the website with their translations and were analysed based on the six categories of the linguistic comprehensibility section of the POCA model. Then, they were given to the senior translation students in Iran to be translated again. After that, the same chunks of the two translations were put to the vote using the Telegram platform, and 132 lay people participated. The analysis revealed that senior students' translations were more understandable than the website's in all six categories. Due to the sensitive nature of the healthcare field, this study suggests that the authorities in multilingual communities collect their audience's opinions, as ultimate users, to discover the language barriers and then take appropriate measures to remove them. Domestic translators can also enhance the translation quality and, subsequently, comprehensibility since they are more familiar with the culture of the intended language, which in this case is Persian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Moroccan Ministry of Education has recently implemented a multilingual programme, called 'language alternation' (LA). The programme aims at improving students' foreign language (FL) proficiency level and promoting plurilingualism by using French, English, and Spanish, for the teaching of math, physics and life and earth sciences at the secondary level, instead of the official language, Arabic. The study sought to understand this new tendency in Moroccan education by examining official educational documents and exploring teachers' perceptions using Grounded Theory (GT), which is a hypothesis-generating methodology. The findings showed a gap between the conceptualised language recommendations in the official documents and the implementation of these recommendations in Moroccan schools. In addition, it seems that the new enacted educational policy has brought about challenges for both students and teachers. The interviewed teachers were concerned about their students' initial FL proficiency, the negative effect of the new policy on students' content learning, the lack of trainings in the methodology of the new medium of instruction (MOI) policy and limited agency of teachers in the conceptualisation and implementation of the new policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although translanguaging has become a central issue in the multilingual education literature, research on pedagogical translanguaging practices remains underdeveloped. This article describes a study of 72 primary school students (age = 10.68) who participated in an intervention based on translanguaging pedagogies. During the intervention, the boundaries between Basque, Spanish, and English were purposefully and systematically softened to develop the students' communicative competence in the three languages. The study adopted a qualitative approach to explore the pedagogical validity of translanguaging. Focus group discussions were conducted as well as classroom observation in the Basque, Spanish and English language subjects. Qualitative Content Analysis was conducted to analyze the data. In addition, we analyzed translanguaging materials completed by students to gain a better understanding of their performance. The results are discussed in terms of specific translanguaging strategies designed for the intervention and show an increase in students' metalinguistic awareness in the three languages. Students found pedagogical translanguaging useful since it facilitates language comparison and scaffolds understanding and written production. In addition, they found vocabulary strategies particularly beneficial for scaffolding foreign language learning. Finally, implications for the future development of translanguaging practices and research are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present research focuses on studying teachers' beliefs about the complexity of learning the curricular languages in the Basque Country, with special focus on Basque, the minority language. The study adopts a mixed-methods research design. For the quantitative data, 1093 participants completed a specifically designed online questionnaire, which was administered to three groups: pre-service (N = 564), in-service (N = 418), and university teachers (N = 111). In the qualitative part of the study, the beliefs of 20 in-service teachers were collected through four focus groups. The results indicate that in-service and university teachers hold favourable beliefs toward learning curricular languages, and consider Basque a difficult language to learn, even more so than English and French. However, the statistical results suggest a significant change in that belief for the pre-service teachers, who perceive Basque easier to learn than English and French. This perception could result in the gradual elimination of the 'difficult language' label given to Basque. Moreover, in-service teachers show concerns about the imbalance between the knowledge of the minority language and the use. In particular, they seek innovative solutions for establishing Basque at the core of multilingual education, so that this minoritized language can take safe steps forward towards normalisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has shown that non-native background languages (L2s) can play an important role in the acquisition of an L3/Ln. However, only a few studies have focussed on positive transfer from an L2 to an L3/Ln in the context of multilingual language acquisition of Romance past tenses. The present study therefore analyses the acquisition of perfective/imperfective aspect in Spanish by 58 German-speaking multilingual learners with previous linguistic knowledge in two L2s (i.e. English and French). Data were elicited by means of a language background questionnaire, a c-test (for proficiency measures in Spanish), and three semantic interpretation tasks (used to determine the participants' knowledge of aspect in the L2s and the target language). The findings indicate that the learners transfer the form-meaning-mappings established in (one of) their L2s, resulting in positive effects when form-meaning-mappings between the L2 and the target language(s) are similar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we analyse how multilingual students portray themselves, what attitudes do they hold regarding translanguaging pedagogies and how these pedagogies may or not, in reverse, be related to students' own self-concept as multilingual speakers. The study presents the results of an intervention based on Pedagogical Translanguaging (PT) conducted in a secondary public school with a high rate of students of an immigrant origin. For data collection, a questionnaire was designed combining closed Likert-type questions and open questions, and the materials gathered from the intervention were analysed. The results showed that most of the participants portrayed themselves as multilingual speakers with fluid interactions between their languages but with very specific feelings and functions attached to them. Additionally, most of the participants reported that the intervention was positive in the development of their critical thinking and self-concept. These results challenge the monolingual perspectives on (language) teaching and highlight new challenges in the goal of including more flexible curriculums and immigrant students' home languages in the classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immigrant minority (IM) languages have a significant presence in certain European regions. Nonetheless, these languages are not usually included in the school curriculum. This paper aims to analyse the studies published between 2010 and 2020 considering IM languages in multilingual European education contexts. The method included a search of academic papers published in the databases ERIC, Web of Science and Scopus, which yielded 42 studies. The studies were analysed by considering (1) the demographic characteristics of the countries where the studies were conducted, (2) the sociolinguistic or psycholinguistic focus of the papers in relation to the European country, and (3) the characteristics of the bi-multilingual education programme including IM languages. The results indicate that (1) the demographic characteristics of the country are not strictly related to the number of studies published, (2) most studies have a sociolinguistic approach even though many studies analyse both sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic factors, and (3) only seven multilingual education programmes including IM languages were described in these papers. We conclude that there is a lack of research focusing on IM languages in educational settings and discuss how addressing these gaps could create opportunities for building equitable multilingual communities in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the findings from a study on lower secondary math teaching (year 7 and 9) in a Danish school. The study is part of a larger action research project aiming at developing new ways of teaching and learning in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms. The math teachers hypothesised that their students would be able to benefit more from math instruction if they were able to draw on their full linguistic repertoire in class. As a response to this, a series of teaching activities addressing mathematical discourse in Danish, Arabic, and the other languages present in the classrooms were developed and delivered to the two classes. A group of Arabic-speaking students worked with math assignments and mathematical discourse using learning materials in both Danish and Arabic, but other languages present in the linguistically heterogenetic classes were also involved in the teaching and learning activities, integrating translanguaging practices in math teaching activities. Findings indicate that translanguaging practices in the math classroom have the potentials to elicit linguistic awareness about the nature of mathematical discourse in students, but also raise awareness about the role of languages in the classroom as such. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores multilingual international students' narratives of mobility and socialisation through online discursive spaces of interview conversations. Drawing upon an ecological approach to transnational narratives, the researcher analyzed international students' multiscalar interactions and transformations in sociospatial practices. The analyses provide ethnographic accounts of the participants' translingual discourses, transcultural trajectories, and translocal community lives that involve transnational connections across temporal and spatial borders. The findings also suggest that interview conversations with peers promote international students' dynamic narrations of their life experiences of multilingual mobility in continuously evolving ecological communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overall interest in the present paper is equal early childhood education (ECE) in terms of educating multilingually. Instead of monoglossic bilingual education directed to some children, or monoglossic monolingual education directed to children despite language background, education for recognising and creating multilingual practices for all children is reasoned in terms of global early childhood education (GECE). The reasoning is grounded on a sociocultural understanding of learning, research on holistic multilingual education and the concept of play-responsive teaching. In the paper, a framework with principles for GECE – ECE characterised by multifaceted language ecology – is put forward. The principles concerning (i) conditions, (ii) learning contents and (iii) teaching tools are formulated to provide premises for and to be evolved through empirical research. The paper contributes to the contemporary challenge of implementing multilingual teaching approaches. Legitimising multilingual teaching in practice is considered a question for research in collaboration with teachers and professional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the World Health Organisation declared COVID-19 a global pandemic in 2020, universities worldwide have undergone unanticipated changes in how they operate and deliver the academic programme. Chief among these changes has been a wide-scale adoption of emergency remote teaching (ERT). This phenomenological study draws on critical pedagogy to analyse the experiences of South African academics of how the adoption of ERT influenced their use of multilingual pedagogies. Seven lecturers from seven different South African universities were purposively selected to participate based on their prior use of multilingual pedagogies. They teach in fields such as politics, history and education, with some based in traditional universities and others at universities of technology. The participants' reflections reveal that they essentially found using multilingual pedagogies amid emergency remote teaching very challenging. The challenges can be grouped into three categories: shifts from in-person to on-screen interactions; shifts in the types of multimodal resources used to teach multilingually; and shifts from approaches that intellectualise indigenous languages to approaches that are focused on delivery. According to these educators, multilingual teaching online, particularly in the context of emergency remote teaching, does not bode well for the intellectualisation of indigenous South African languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scope of the paper is to analyse Namibian mainstream primary teachers' practices in the multilingual context they work in. As teachers have a central role in implementing language policies, their practices either support or impede learning as well as learners' multilingual identities. Multilingual practices entailing rich scaffolding and translanguaging strategies are supposed to be beneficial for content and language learning and the learners' identity development. The methodological approach adopted in this study is ethnographic, and the theoretical framework is linguistically responsive teaching and multilingual education. The data consist of teacher interviews and focus group discussions, a questionnaire and classroom observations. The analysis method is qualitative content analysis. The data were collected in two Namibian government primary schools in the beginning of the 2020 school year. The analysis shows that translanguaging strategies such as peer translation or explaining concepts in home languages are used, but rarely as pre-planned pedagogical strategies. Scaffolding is provided mostly through visual aids. It may be concluded that the translanguaging strategies already in use should be encouraged further, and multilingual pedagogies should be included in both pre-service and in-service teacher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

'Translanguaging' has become the most popular term in discussions about how to use learners' languages as resources for target language teaching/learning, but it has also become ambiguous because it is being developed in proposals adopting different perspectives on multilingualism. The first aim of this article is to offer an overview of the two main current proposals of translanguaging together: García and colleagues' 'spontaneous translanguaging' and Cenoz and Gorter's 'pedagogical translanguaging'. 'Spontaneous translanguaging' argues that languages in the mind are represented as one single system and that the notion of transfer, consequently, must be rejected. This article argues that this view may not be practical because it makes it difficult for teachers to conceptualise what they are doing when raising awareness of similarities between learners' languages. 'Pedagogical translanguaging', by contrast, centres around transfer. Whereas transfer is traditionally seen as unintentional 'interference', pedagogical translanguaging considers it a phenomenon that learners can use intentionally and creatively, and which teachers could promote by raising learners' awareness of similarities between their languages. However, very little is known about how learners use transfer unintentionally versus intentionally. This article discusses key findings and implications from Fuster's (2022) initial study on intentionality in lexical transfer within pedagogical translanguaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Translanguaging studies have paid much attention to meaning-making processes, exploring multilingual speakers' strategic selection of linguistic features from a holistic linguistic repertoire to convey meanings, and assuming that multilingual addressees can successfully decode the encoded meanings. Failure in the meaning-interpreting processes in relation to translanguaging contexts is largely ignored. To bridge the gap, this study explores Chinese multilingual/bilingual addressees' misinterpretations in translanguaging contexts, by probing into the mechanisms of misinterpretation. Misinterpretations are found to occur as a consequence of gaps between the addresser and the addressee in the cognitive, social-historical, and cultural dimensions of a Translanguaging Space, and failure of the Translanguaging Instinct resulting from various causes, such as confusion of and preferences for different linguistic codes. Furthermore, Chinese addressees' misinterpretations are also related to addressers' creativity or novel expressions and the spreading use of pinyin/English abbreviations in online communication. With this study, it is argued that translanguaging as a theory of practice should look into how the meaning of a new word, phrase, or abbreviation becomes conventionalised and how newcomers of a community are socialised into the shared practice of translanguaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigates the reflections on tempo-aspectual morphology in Italian expressed by undergraduate multilingual learners with previous knowledge of Swedish and a Romance language (N = 22). The reflections of the participants, who were divided into four groups depending on a combination of proficiency in their background Romance language and in Italian, were analysed using a qualitative content analysis. From the analysis categories and subcategories emerged, and their occurrences served to display group tendencies. Four categories (explicit rules, intuition, other languages and uncertainty/unknown), and seven subcategories were found and their occurrence was differently distributed across groups. Further, the reflections of the learners became more sophisticated as proficiency in Italian increased. In fact, the reflections progressively incorporated different layers of information connected to explicit knowledge about tenses: temporal, aspectual and, finally, lexical, that is, the inherent semantics of the predicates. Finally, while the reflections of low-proficiency learners referred to different L2s (e.g. English and French), high-proficiency learners made comparisons with Swedish more consistently, regardless of their proficiency level in the Romance language. These results are discussed in the light of research on second/additional language learning of aspectual distinctions in Romance languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a scarcity of research into the relationship between speech perception and production from a multilingual perspective. The present exploratory study investigates longitudinally the acquisition of rhotic sounds in 24 adolescent learners who have the same language repertoires (English, German, Polish), with English being their L2, and German and Polish their L1 or L3. The design involved a forced-choice goodness task (for perception) and a delayed repetition task (for production) administered in both L2 and L3 at two testing times. The overall results show better performance in perception than production of L2/L3 rhotics at both testing points, although the relationship between the two domains was modulated by the L1 background and universal learnability of the target rhotics. A major effect of language proficiency was found, as overall a stronger link between the two modalities was found for the L2 than the L3 of the learner groups. However, detailed analyses demonstrate different types of perception-production link for individual learners over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years multilingual approaches to teaching have been widely discussed and translanguaging has been proposed as a pedagogy that offers very positive results in many contexts. Overall, the need to reverse monolingual assumptions among teachers and to adapt pedagogical translanguaging to each context has been highlighted. For that purpose, training preservice teachers on multilingualism, translanguaging and on how to transform their educational practises is fundamental. In the present study, we train 117 preservice teachers on translanguaging and materials' design and analyse the created materials quantitatively and qualitatively. The outcomes reveal some common traces among the materials presented and these are analysed as related to infant and primary teachers' professional development and to a broader educational context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little research has explored individuals' multilingual selves when learning a language other than English (LOTE) in conflict-affected situations. Therefore, this qualitative study sought to understand the motivation and ultimate vision of a group of internally displaced Syrians learning Turkish as an L3 or L4 in Afrin on the Syrian-Turkish border. The data were collected from the participants' written narratives and two subsequent rounds of individual online semi-structured interviews. The data suggest that the participants' desire to learn Turkish ranged from the need to secure a job in Afrin to reasons associated with achieving their ideal selves by imagining themselves working/studying at a Turkish university and being integrated into the Turkish community in future. The participants were proactive agents, recognising that attending Turkish private tutoring courses with under-qualified tutors was not sufficient to improve their language proficiency. They capitalised on the availability of technology-mediated learning artefacts and the support of some informal actors. This qualitative study has pedagogical implications and provides further evidence of the need for SLA research to serve all multilingual people, not just the privileged, by conducing empirical studies in non-affluent geographies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated integrating a combined approach of translingualism and transculturalism in an anthropology content learning classroom of a Bangladeshi private university. Data were collected from classroom observation, a pedagogical intervention, a focus group discussion with six students, and a semi-structured interview with the class teacher. The analysis of the observation data demonstrated several attempts at integrating translingual-transcultural approaches to make sense of anthropology content despite the stipulated English only policy. The intervention data and participant responses revealed a contact zone of diverse cultural and ethical systems to draw on through this translingual-transcultural approach, providing a holistic teaching and learning experience for the researcher and the students. The participants' response revealed a structured linguistic inequality imposed by the English-only policy among different student groups in the focal university. Without the confines of an English only classroom culture, the combined approaches of translingualism and transculturalism supported a classroom environment with reduced discrimination and injustice arising from student backgrounds and English competency. The participants were able to reflect positively on their relationships, investments, and experiences with broadened dispositions involving their fuller semiotic resources, including both language and culture elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children and youth from refugee backgrounds have complex language experiences owing to their journeys away from their homelands often taking them through multiple contexts. This study was motivated by a desire to better understand the language resources of students newly arrived as refugees in Australia and their embodied and contextualised experiences of their languages. Language portraits are a tool used to generate insights into language experiences. For this study, the language portrait tool was extended beyond the body to include contexts within which languages are experienced (school, home, the digital domain, other). Participants were 41 secondary students, who arrived as refugees from South Asia and the Middle East and were either enrolled in, or recent graduates of, an intensive English language programme. Findings were derived from (1) coding of languages according to embodied experience and context and (2) thematic analysis of students' transcribed discussion. Patterns across the cohort indicated that these students primarily experience their thinking as monolingual in their L1. However, the coding of sensory zones indicates that multilingualism is experienced as a multisensory flow of viewing, listening, speaking, eating and otherwise experiencing. Challenging assumptions of the home language environments of refugee students, homes appeared as multilingual domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skilled adult readers are those who read fluently, but multilingual learners do not always exhibit the same reading proficiency in the different languages they know. Among the variables that influence learners' silent reading fluency, a research trend points to musical aptitude as an individual ability that affects language learners' reading competency. Common auditory features of reading and musical skills have been observed in studies with children and adolescents, but studies involving multilingual adults learning an additional language are scarce. This study aims to observe the potential relationship of multilingual learners' musical aptitude and their silent reading fluency in all the languages the learners know and in Spanish, an additional language they are learning as adults. 157 Flemish university students were tested in Dutch, French, English, and Spanish. Learners' sociocultural data , their musical aptitude and their silent contextual word reading fluency in all languages were tested. In addition, a reading comprehension test in L4 (Spanish) was administered. The statistical results indicate a significant correlation between their musical aptitude and their L1, L2, L3 silent reading fluency, but not with L4 (Spanish). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims at identifying and explaining the correlation between the Covid-19 and multi-lingualism through cross-country research, drawing on three datasets: WHO data on the expanse of the pandemic, UNESCO data on endangered languages, and the LDI (Linguistic Diversity Index). Results establishing a direct correlation between the pandemic and multi-lingualism vary across the countries, except the USA, India, and Brazil. The three countries experiencing the highest global pandemic caseload occupy the top positions in the number of endangered languages and are among the top ten linguistically diverse countries. Drawing from the research findings, the paper addresses the criticality of investing in multi-lingualism and calls for a shift of perspective among policymakers driven by neoliberal rationale towards greater recognition and higher funding for multi-lingual education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Translanguaging goes between linguistic and/or modal boundaries and beyond them (Li, W. (2011a). Moment analysis and translanguaging space: Discursive construction of identities by multilingual Chinese youth in Britain. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(5), 1222–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.035). The appearance of this new concept marks a significant development of multilingualism studies. This paper is based on an empirical study of creating a translanguaging space and positive 'classroom climate' (Gabryś-Barker, D. (2014). Success: From failure to failure with enthusiasm. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(2), 301–325. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.7) by allowing for students' emotional expression and supporting their emotions to benefit EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learning in the Chinese context. The visual data are multilingual and multimodal student-made artefacts called emotional curves completed by newly registered university students as descriptive homework of their emotions about English learning in the classroom. These emotional curves create a translanguaging space where students adopt multiple linguistic and semiotic resources to express emotions and identities freely and creatively. The multimodal discourse analysis of emotional curves is combined with (auto)ethnographic observations and interviews, which shed light upon the emotional motivation for translanguaging and manifest effective teacher-student communication owing to the teacher's 'emotional scaffolding' (Park, M. H. (2014). Increasing English language learners' engagement in instruction through emotional scaffolding. Multicultural Education, 22(1), 20–29.) strategies. Theoretically, this paper highlights the transformative power of translanguaging space and clarifies emotional representations of translanguaging theory. Pedagogically, this study advocates acknowledging and scaffolding students' emotions to establish better teacher-student relationships and create a flexible translanguaging space and harmonious classroom climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This commentary discusses the theoretical and methodological issues highlighted by the special issue 'Language Policies and Practices in Early Childhood Education: Perspectives across European Migration Societies'. A systematic review of the seven contributions in this special issue makes evident the concept of agency. Consequently, this commentary introduces agency in language policy and planning with a focus on multilingual early childhood education and care, and discusses how this concept emerged from the theoretical background and its presence in the interpretation of results, as well as how it unfolds in different contexts. This is followed by a reflection on the continuities and discontinuities in the ethnographic approaches employed. To address agency in early childhood education and care in more depth, a model of agency will be introduced. Lastly, future directions for participatory approaches in ethnography and advocacy will be discussed as new avenues for the investigation of language policy and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do teachers deal with multilingual pupils, and what reasons govern these choices? Whereas most studies on this topic have examined teachers in schools with monolingual policies, this paper includes teachers at bilingual schools. Framed by pedagogical theory, we present a qualitative research study based on interviews with teachers in the German state North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW). This area constitutes an interesting research site since 30-50% of the children are multilingual, but language policies in schools differ: Whereas most schools have a monolingual orientation, bilingual schools aim to purposely integrate languages beyond German in regular classes. Our results show that despite the differences in school language policies, despite different professional biographies and independent of knowledge on multilingual upbringings, teachers in mono- as well as bilingual schools reproduce the unquestioned perception of a monolingual norm. Furthermore, teachers at bilingual schools focusing on European languages deem migration-induced multilingualism as even less important than do teachers at regular schools. Finally, the results underline the importance of institutional policies and allow for insights into individual logic. On a larger horizon, the study contributes to issues of language-responsible teaching, equal opportunities, educational equality and social cohesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple language learning has been largely neglected in L2 motivation research. Recently, complexity principles have been used to model multilingual motivation. In this work, multilingual self-guides are conceptualised as emergent from interactions between the motivation systems of different languages. Motivational systems and their emergent properties are also influenced by the contexts in which acquisition takes place. In this interview-based study in a Swedish secondary school setting, the ideal multilingual self is explored as 'a system functioning in context'. Focusing on the ways in which multilingual identities and the social contexts of multilingualism co-evolve, analyses show how the school environment shapes and is shaped by emergent identities. The importance of multi-scalar designs is highlighted, and the contribution of motivation research to sustainable multilingual education is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family Language Policy never takes place only in private but is embedded in larger discourses in society or rather in several societies to which the multilingual family is linked. One main point of contact of families and discourses on language is the education system. Previous research has shown that bilingual families orient towards teachers for advice on their language policies and tend to adopt the schools' view on languages. This especially applies to families, in which three or more languages are spoken. In this article, I will present the results from a case study with two highly multilingual families in Germany and the parents' orientation to the education system. Findings show that in the case of the two families, teachers do not have extensive direct influence. Instead, the main impact that the education system has on the families' language policy is indirect by conveying and enforcing mainstream language ideologies and supporting high prestige languages such as English and French, while the parents constantly try to anticipate potential expectations by stakeholders in the education system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While educational language policies have been shown to have a stronger influence on school-aged children's multilingual outcomes than Family Language Policy, California provides an example of how parental motivation and activism can also have a profound impact on educational language policies. This paper has two goals: first, it provides an overview of the legislative changes that affected California's educational system between the 1970s and the present, which resulted in an overall shift in public opinion and attitudes towards multilingualism and in a transition from promotion-oriented to restriction-oriented to again promotion-oriented educational policies with regards to multilingual education. The second part of the paper exemplifies the agency of Californian families in shaping their children's education by describing the history of an Italian/English two-way immersion programme born out of parental activism. The paper then presents the results of a preliminary study on parental attitudes within the programme, highlighting parents' strong appreciation of multilingualism and their renewed enthusiasm for Italian proficiency, bilingualism, and biliteracy in this Southern California's community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theories of multilingual language learning often assume that previous language learning experiences in at least two languages provide advantages for additional language learning. Other research emphasises the importance of general cognitive abilities as predictors of language learning. We test whether a set of predictions based on a multilingual advantage theory or on a cognitive abilities-related theory fit the data better. Whereas many studies in both traditions focus on (young) adults, our study focuses on multilingual language learning in children. We discuss evidence from the primary school context in German-speaking Switzerland. The 115 pupils from 8 different schools were in 7th grade at the first measurement time (T1) and in 8th grade one year later (T2). They are predominantly German-speaking, and they learn first French and then English as foreign languages at school. German and French skills were tested at T1, and English skills one year later at T2. In addition, verbal and visuo-spatial working memory and general intelligence were tested at T1. Two structural equation models are fitted to the data, representing two different theoretical assumptions. Both models are acceptable but adding interdependence of the three languages does not substantially increase the fit to the data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on teaching techniques for language learning as related to student satisfaction on multilingual compulsory education in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC), where Basque and Spanish are official languages and English is taught as a foreign language. Using a multilingual approach, the paper discusses similarities and differences between the relationships found for the teaching techniques and the satisfaction levels in the three languages (Basque, Spanish and English). The results of the T-test analysis show significant differences between the three languages in the use of teaching techniques and levels of satisfaction. Additionally, the patterns of relationship between the teaching techniques and the language learning satisfaction levels show some weak relationship in the three languages, being learner-centred teaching techniques related to satisfaction levels. Results are explained according to some assumptions in language acquisition, and related to the context of the study. Finally, we discuss some opportunities for language teaching in multilingual contexts with a minority language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the content of teacher education curricula provided by universities located in European multilingual border regions of Austria, Germany, Estonia, Italy, Slovakia, and Slovenia with the aim to reveal the key components of primary teacher education curricula for multilingual schools and compare them against the EU guidelines to teacher training for multilingual schools. The curricula under comparative analysis are offered by universities or teacher training centres located in European border regions, which have extensive trilingual working experience with state languages, languages of ethnic minorities and the English language. The findings highlight common areas of pre-service teacher training for multilingual schools in European multilingual areas, thus providing an evidence-based insight into curriculum design for teacher training for multilingual schools. Designing such curricula is topical in view of growing multilingualism and multiculturalism in European education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multilingual pedagogies draw on learners' prior language knowledge and can offer considerable advantages in learning the target language. Yet language instruction, particularly in foreign language learning contexts, does not often capitalise on the multilingual assets of learners. The goal of this study is to understand what determines the implementation of multilingual pedagogies in two institutes of German as Foreign Language, one in the US and one in India. In this comparative case study, ecological perspectives are adopted to examine what factors impede or foster the use of multilingual pedagogies in adult foreign language instruction in both schools. Data collection methods involved open-ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews with teachers and an analysis of context-specific documents. Findings revealed that there were encouraging, constraining and contingent factors across both schools. While some factors were common to both schools, and there were other context-specific factors that determined the adoption of multilingual teaching. The results of the study also reflect larger issues such as a gap between theory and practice and a lack of teacher collaboration. The paper concludes with some suggestions on how such issues might be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to compare the levels of intercultural sensitivity (IS) in teenage multilinguals coming from two post-communist countries: Poland (N=293) and Georgia (N=240). Aside from quantitative data the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale by Chen & Starosta., the qualitative part of the study focused on exploring quality of contacts with another culture. It was found that Polish students demonstrated significantly lower levels of intercultural sensitivity in spite of their greater foreign language experience. However, Georgian multilinguals demonstrated greater positive affect, both quantitatively (Intercultural Enjoyment as part of the IS assessment) and qualitatively (prevailing positively-valanced memories of significant cultural encounters). In both cohorts L2 (English) prevailed as the only foreign language related to intercultural sensitivity. The findings are discussed against the past and current political and linguistic situation in both countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The challenging task of establishing meaningful translanguaging in multilingual classrooms necessitates negotiation between different stakeholders. Such negotiation requires investigation of the contexts and ways in which translanguaging may be implemented as a suitable teaching strategy. The aim of the current study was to elicit practical and pedagogical issues of translanguaging in the classroom via interviews with three different groups of stakeholders: language education researchers, teachers, and multilingual learners. We visited four differently composed multilingual high schools from which concrete examples were recalled in semi-structured interviews on the topic of translanguaging with the selected stakeholders. Adopting an iterative study design, interviewees were presented with daily life examples from the school visits as well as statements from other stakeholder interviews. Their statements and reactions to the statements of others were recorded, qualitatively analysed and categorised. Overall, seven distinct pedagogical challenges concerning a translanguaging pedagogy emerged from the interview analysis: (1) Side effects; (2) Goal formulation; (3) Learning the language of schooling; (4) English and other semiotic resources; (5) Affective functions; (6) Effort; and (7) Confusion. These palpable pedagogic issues may be helpful in understanding how translanguaging in multilingual contexts can be implemented, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a great deal of research literature that treats language learning as a process of identity construction, but relatively few studies have investigated so-called additional languages. This article presents interview and other narrative data from a single language learner studying French as an additional language in Hong Kong. Using the methodological approach of narrative inquiry, it explores the relationship between additional language learning and identity. The data show how additional language learning plays a significant role in identity construction, and the discussion highlights three aspects of this relationship. First, the process of learning is revealed as being one of growing intercultural awareness. This is seen as an identity-related disposition that can be used to deal with certain aspects of the learner's own cultural environment. Second, the creative appropriation of an additional language is an affordance for identity construction, despite limited levels of conventional proficiency. Third, the significance of particular languages and their associated cultures is constructed in relation to other languages in the language ecology. In addition to illustrating these aspects of language learning in the age of globalisation, the article briefly considers the pedagogical implications of taking an identity-based perspective on language learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study closely examined the motivational language selves of Chinese university students in the process of multilingual learning. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve Japanese specialist majors. The qualitative data revealed the complex interplay between the participants' language selves and complicated contextual influences. The participants seemed to have strong ideal English self especially in the workplace and relatively weaker ideal Japanese self. They had strong ought-to Japanese self and their ought-to English self was suspended to some extent. Apart from their English and Japanese selves, they also constructed a multilingual self. The cultural, social and pedagogical contexts in which the participants were embedded exerted mixed influences on their self constructions. The findings suggest the neoliberal emphasis on the instrumental value of language and the negative impact of English as a global language on Japanese learning in such social discourse. This article is concluded with some pedagogical implications for language teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multilingual identity is an area ripe for further exploration within the existing extensive body of identity research. In this paper we make a case for a conceptual framework that defines multilingual identity formation in terms of learners' active involvement, and proposes the classroom as the hitherto underused site for participative identity (re)negotiation. After reviewing three key theoretical perspectives on identity (the psychosocial, sociocultural and poststructural) for points of intersection and difference, we propose a new framework for a multi-theoretical approach to the conceptualisation and investigation of multilingual identity. This places it at the nexus of (a) individual psychological development, (b), the relational and social, and (c) the historical and contextual. Arguing that a participative perspective can take the field forward, we present a theorised model for classroom practice that provides a structure within which individual learners of a foreign language might explore, with reference to a range of sociolinguistic knowledge, the extent of their current linguistic repertoire. In addition, they are asked to explicitly consider their identity and identifications and offered the agency to (re)negotiate these in terms of multilingual identity, the development of which may be important for investment in language learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teacher training programmes have often ignored the new multilingual paradigm and, consequently, educators may hold some misconceptions about how additional languages are learnt and should be taught in multilingual contexts. A number of recent studies have investigated language teachers' beliefs regarding multilingual education [Arocena-Egaña, E., Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2015). Teachers' beliefs in multilingual education in the Basque country and in Friesland. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 3(2), 169–193; De Angelis, G. (2011). Teachers' beliefs about the role of prior language knowledge in learning and how these influence teaching practices. International Journal of Multilingualism, 8(3), 216–234; Griva, E., & Chostelidou, D. (2012). Multilingual competence development in the Greek educational system: FL teachers' beliefs and attitudes. International Journal of Multilingualism, 9(3), 257–271; Haukås, Å. (2016). Teacher's beliefs about multilingualism and a multilingual pedagogical approach. International Journal of Multilingualism, 13(1), 1–18; Mitits, L. (2018). Multilingual students in Greek school: teachers' views and teaching practices. Journal of education and e-learning research, 5(1), 28–36. Otwinowska, A. (2014). Does multilingualism influence plurilingual awareness of Polish teachers of English? International Journal of Multilingualism, 11(1), 97–119]. Unlike this extant literature, the current paper focuses not on language teachers, but on a sample of 121 subject teachers-to-be. More specifically, it aims to explore preschool and primary prospective teachers' beliefs about the learning and teaching of English as an L3 in the Valencian Community. The main data collection tool was a questionnaire, partially based on [Griva, E., & Chostelidou, D. (2012). Multilingual competence development in the Greek educational system: FL teachers' beliefs and attitudes. International Journal of Multilingualism, 9(3), 257–271] semi-structured interviews. This questionnaire was implemented as a pretest and as a posttest in order to analyse the effect of instruction for multilingual education on subject teachers' beliefs. Results point to the effectiveness of initial teacher training on tertiary/additional language teaching. However, they also confirm the persistence of some monolingual views concerning key issues, such as the younger-the better myth, as already highlighted in previous studies conducted in similar multilingual contexts (see Arocena-Egaña, E., Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2015). Teachers' beliefs in multilingual education in the Basque country and in Friesland. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 3(2), 169–193]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of multilingual education, translanguaging has been put forward as a means of including several languages in education. However, teachers often assess translanguaging-based approaches as being too vague and idealist. This study discusses data from two settings (Luxembourg and Netherlands) in which teachers working in design-based projects operationalised the concept of translanguaging in order to include both migrant and minority languages in mainstream education. Examples from each dataset will be discussed in order to show the different functions of translanguaging in the two settings. Analyses of classroom transcripts provide insights into how official translanguaging can be used as pedagogical strategy to acknowledge migrant languages, achieve less language separation in traditional immersion models and to increase content understanding. Based on teachers' own reflection on their use of translanguaging and on iterative interpretation of excerpts of the data, the study provides an overview of the functional use of different languages within moments of official translanguaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the conditions of the globalized new economy, European universities have become profit-making institutions. They envision students as mobile workers-to-be whose employability chances depend on self-enterprising and on self-responsibilization for foreign-language command, and they now compete in the educational marketplace by targeting them with an increased offer of internationalized English-mediated 'multilingual' degrees. This paper explores attitudes towards these marketed/marketable studenthood identities by 30 Catalan/Spanish-speaking students enrolled in four Multilingual Studies degrees in Barcelona. The data include students' audio-recorded life-narrative interviews and online 'life-after-graduation' stories collected during a two-year ethnography (2011–2013). The results show that students engage in institutional neoliberal regimes which train them in the academic/professional, linguistic and personhood profiles required in global employment niches. They inhabit unique 'multilingualized' identities, with English as their professional/socialization lingua franca, and they self-attribute open-minded 'civic-citizenship' values, with an 'innate' capacity to engage with Otherness. They also invest in 'cosmopolitan' trajectories which blend ways of being, working and enjoying leisure in the transnational arena. This reveals how students position themselves in the precarious job marketplace, in autobiographic accounts of experience, which contributes to understanding youth identity projections as elite entrepreneurial lifestylers pointing to newer practices of socioeconomic competition, distinction and stratification at university. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the present implementation of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) in the Philippines, this study investigated the language practices of teachers and learners (collectively 'participants') in the teaching and learning of English as a second language (ESL) in two Third Grade classrooms in a multilingual city in the Philippines. Using qualitative measures (classroom observations, semi-structured interviews), this study primarily found that the participants used language practices, which this study argues should be subsumed under translanguaging, either explicitly or implicitly, to mediate their communicative functions that are crucial in ESL classrooms. Through translanguaging, the teachers were able to present their lessons, conduct classroom discussions, enhance students' understanding, and manage student behaviour more effectively and efficiently; and the students, in turn, were able to participate in classroom discussions and substantively demonstrate their knowledge and understanding. This study posits that multilingual teachers and learners utilise their language practices in the classroom to enhance meaning amongst themselves and between them and their tasks. This study further argues that since translanguaging is demonstrated by the participants as their inherent practice as multilinguals, it can be better understood when viewed from the perspective of multilingualism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

L2 motivation research has a longstanding monolingual bias. Recently, however, the motivational systems of a multilingual's different languages have been conceptualised as constituting a multilingual motivational system, and it has been suggested that interactions between the ideal Lx self and the ideal Ly self can lead to the emergence of an ideal multilingual self. While the notion of an ideal multilingual self chimes with research on multilinguals’ identity experiences, it has not been investigated empirically. The purpose of this study is to establish whether there is empirical support for the proposed ideal multilingual self construct, and whether it influences motivation to learn a second foreign language. A questionnaire containing items measuring the ideal L2 self and the ideal multilingual self was administered to a sample of secondary students (N = 323) at two schools in Sweden with international profiles. Using structural equation modelling, analyses yielded discriminant validity for the ideal multilingual self construct, and revealed an indirect influence on intended effort mediated via the ideal L2 self. On the strength of these results, a case is made for future research into people's motivation to be or become multilingual, and educational interventions focused on developing students’ ideal multilingual selves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents data which challenge current hegemonic discourses in public and media spaces which reductively position young British Muslims as linguistically problematic. Framing these data are public space statements which argue for an overly simple linguistic basis to so-called extremist behaviour based on the presence or absence of the English language. Through an analysis of a questionnaire and interviews carried out with young performers, singers and reciters of devotional song and poetry in a range of language varieties, this article shows how such performance practices lead to the deployment of complex and mobile language resources which help negotiate and fashion rich linguistic repertoires and fluid identities for these young British Muslims. The article argues that these are (a) more representative of the wider British-Muslim youth community, (b) unmarked, and thus generally invisible within public discourses and (c) a far cry from the prevailing discursive attempts to frame young Muslims as posing a linguistic problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globalisation and increased transnational migration underscore the need for educational responses to multilingualism and multilingual discourses. One way to heighten awareness of multilingual pedagogies (while simultaneously providing data for multilingual research) is the use of reflective language study and journaling by language educators/researchers. The purpose of this collaborative autoethnography, which focuses on the United States, is to demonstrate how this can be accomplished in language teacher education courses to help raise awareness and interest of how to capitalise on students’ linguistic and cultural resources. Data for this study included three participant/researcher journals and observational notes from collaborative discussions among researcher/participants about the lived experiences of multilingual language educators as they studied a new language and wrote about their experiences. Findings reveal possibilities for future research in cross-linguistic transfer as well as the teaching of multilingual pedagogies and issues of social justice as it relates to multilingual education. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper investigated linguistic practices and choices of Australian children of Indian descent, an under-researched group, who are studying Hindi in primary education. Data was collected using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with sixty participants across 3 primary schools in the Sydney area. The findings revealed, as expected, that being born in Australia was associated with greater use of English, and that it was the India-born students who saw a purpose in speaking their ‘mother tongue’. Of those children born in Australia, who had maintained their heritage language in the home, certain cultural groups-Nepalese and Punjabi- had stronger religious loyalties and favourable attitudes towards these languages. Furthermore, it was the grand-parents and non-working mothers who were driving the language maintenance process in the home environment. The conclusion highlights education as a driver for social mobility and raises questions about language and cultural shift as children from Indian backgrounds grow up and are educated in an Australian context. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Within the discourse of language planning and policy, there is an increasing realisation of the strategic role of information and communication technologies in the promotion of indigenous African languages. The article discusses the strategic role that social software, in particular blogs and wiki, can and should play in the development of African languages in South African Higher Education. The paper argues that while the colonial and apartheid legacy can be blamed for the underdevelopment of African languages, the reality of entrenched misconceptions about the use of African languages and poor language policy implementation in the post-apartheid era continue to hinder the promotion of these languages. The increase in the adoption of such social software tools in Higher Education institutions is therefore envisaged to present a platform for the development and promotion of African languages in the Higher Education domain. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Cook argued that the learning of a new language leads to a state of multi-competence, with the learner’s mind changing in ways that go beyond the linguistic realm. The present study follows Dewaele’s suggestion that multilingualism is linked to both cognitive and psychological changes. It explores one particular under-researched relationship, namely the link between bi- and multilingualism and human basic values. Participants were 398 primary school children (incipient bilinguals and functional bi- and multilinguals) in South Tyrol. They filled out a questionnaire on background information and the Picture Based Value Survey for Children (PBVS-C). Multidimensional scaling was used to understand the value structures and hierarchies among these pupils. Results suggest that, contrary to expectations, incipient bilinguals scored significantly higher on openness to change than their multilingual peers. Multilingualism was linked to higher scores on conservation, while children from a migrant background scored higher on conservation and self-enhancement, and lower on openness to change. Children with two migrant parents rated openness to change significantly lower. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]