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A two-dimensional constitutive model based on micromechanical domain rotation events is presented in this work to demonstrate the nonlinear actuator behavior of magnetostrictive materials, in particular, Galfenol. The model constructed upon thermodynamic principles accounts back fields which resist or aid the domain rotation events inside a grain due to external magnetomechanical loading. The developed model is then incorporated into the polygonal finite element technique that combines Voronoi-based discretization with the hybrid finite element method. In this approach, the stress and magnetic flux density are treated as approximate functions inside the element, but the mechanical displacement and magnetic potential, which act as degrees of freedom, are defined only along the element boundary. This approach allows each randomly generated Voronoi polygon in the plane discretization to act as a single finite element mimicking an individual magnetomechanical grain in a polycrystalline Galfenol, eliminating the need for further subdiscretization of the Voronoi polygon. This coupled framework simulates the nonlinear actuator characteristics of the magnetostrictive material under complex magnetomechanical loading conditions in line with the experimental observations reported in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The physical origin of the magnetoplastic effect was experimentally identified in Al polycrystalline alloy. Exposure of the nominally pure industrial Al-Mg-Si-Fe alloy to magnetic field 0.7 T induces residual changes that provide a creep rate increase up to 25% and microhardness decrease down to 30%. FeAl inclusions of ∼1 μm size were revealed in the alloy. Magnetostriction of the ferromagnetic inclusions providing local mechanical stresses and generation of fresh dislocations in the vicinity of the inclusions is the main reason for magnetoplasticity. Ferro-, antiferro-, and paramagnetic contributions of the inclusions and/or Fe atoms distributed in the Al matrix have been distinguished. The chemical composition of FeAl inclusions determined by transition electron microscopy and local field probed by the Mossbauer technique are in good agreement with saturation magnetization of the FeAl alloys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The magnetomechanical behavior of ferromagnetic shape memory alloys such as Ni-Mn-Ga, and hence the relationship between structure and nanoscale magnetomechanical properties, is of interest for their potential applications in actuators. Furthermore, due to its crystal structure, the behavior of Ni-Mn-Ga is anisotropic. Accordingly, nanoindentation and magnetic force microscopy were used to probe the nanoscale mechanical and magnetic properties of electropolished single crystalline 10M martensitic Ni-Mn-Ga as a function of the crystallographic c-axis (easy magnetization) direction relative to the indentation surface (i.e., c-axis in-plane versus out-of-plane). Load-displacement curves from 5–10 mN indentations on in-plane regions exhibited pop-in during loading, whereas this phenomenon was absent in out-of-plane regions. Additionally, the reduced elastic modulus measured for the c-axis out-of-plane orientation was ∼50% greater than for in-plane. Although heating above the transition temperature to the austenitic phase followed by cooling to the room temperature martensitic phase led to partial recovery of the indentation deformation, the magnitude and direction of recovery depended on the original relative orientation of the crystallographic c-axis: positive recovery for the in-plane orientation versus negative recovery (i.e., increased indent depth) for out-of-plane. Moreover, the c-axis orientation for out-of-plane regions switched to in-plane upon thermal cycling, whereas the number of twins in the in-plane regions increased. We hypothesize that dislocation plasticity contributes to the permanent deformation, while pseudoelastic twinning causes pop-in during loading and large recovery during unloading in the c-axis in-plane case. Minimization of indent strain energy accounts for the observed changes in twin orientation and number following thermal cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A constitutive modelling of ferromagnetic materials under combined magnetomechanical multiaxial loading with different boundary conditions and a finite element implementation are presented. The phenomenologically motivated model is capable of predicting magnetisation, strain, and stress and is thus suitable, e.g., for applications in multiferroic composites. The approach covers a reversible nonlinear behaviour as it is observed, e.g., in cobalt ferrite and other soft magnetic alloys. Various examples demonstrate the suitability of the model and its numerical implementation and give an insight into the behaviour of soft magnets, exposed to different boundary conditions or being embedded into other compliant materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weak magnetic nondestructive testing (e.g., metal magnetic memory method) concerns the magnetization variation of ferromagnetic materials due to its applied load and a weak magnetic surrounding them. One key issue on these nondestructive technologies is the magnetomechanical effect for quantitative evaluation of magnetization state from stress-strain condition. A representative phenomenological model has been proposed to explain the magnetomechanical effect by Jiles in 1995. However, the Jiles' model has some deficiencies in quantification, for instance, there is a visible difference between theoretical prediction and experimental measurements on stress-magnetization curve, especially in the compression case. Based on the thermodynamic relations and the approach law of irreversible magnetization, a nonlinear coupled model is proposed to improve the quantitative evaluation of the magnetomechanical effect. Excellent agreement has been achieved between the predictions from the present model and previous experimental results. In comparison with Jiles' model, the prediction accuracy is improved greatly by the present model, particularly for the compression case. A detailed study has also been performed to reveal the effects of initial magnetization status, cyclic loading, and demagnetization factor on the magnetomechanical effect. Our theoretical model reveals that the stable weak magnetic signals of nondestructive testing after multiple cyclic loads are attributed to the first few cycles eliminating most of the irreversible magnetization. Remarkably, the existence of demagnetization field can weaken magnetomechanical effect, therefore, significantly reduces the testing capability. This theoretical model can be adopted to quantitatively analyze magnetic memory signals, and then can be applied in weak magnetic nondestructive testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the wave propagation characteristics of two-dimensional magneto-elastic kagome lattices. Mechanical instabilities caused by magnetic interactions are exploited in combination with particle contact to bring about changes in the topology and stiffness of the lattices. The analysis uses a lumped mass system of particles, which interact through axial and torsional elastic forces as well as magnetic forces. The propagation of in-plane waves is predicted by applying Bloch theorem to lattice unit cells with linearized interactions. Elastic wave dispersion in these lattices before and after topological changes is compared, and large differences are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the use of high magnetomechanical coupling ferrites in magnetoelectric (ME) layered composites. Bilayer samples combining (Ni0.973 Co0.027)1-xZnxFe2O4 ferrites (x=0-0.5) synthesized by non conventional reactive Spark Plasma Sintering and commercial lead zirconate titanate (PZT) were characterized in term of ME voltage coefficients measured at sub-resonant frequency. Strong ME effects are obtained and we show that an annealing at 1000 °C and a quenching in air improve the piezomagnetic behavior of Zn-rich compositions. A theoretical model that predicts the ME behavior was developed, focusing our work on the demagnetizing effects in the transversal mode as well as the longitudinal mode. The model shows that: (i) high ME coefficients are obtained when ferrites with high magnetomechanical coupling are used in bilayer ME composites, (ii) the ME behavior in transversal and longitudinal modes is quite similar, and differences in the shapes of the ME curves are mainly due the demagnetizing effects, (iii) in the transversal mode, the magnetic field penetration depends on the ferrite layer thickness and the ME coefficient is affected accordingly. The two later points are confirmed by measurements on ME samples and calculations. Performances of the ME composites made with high magnetomechanical coupling ferrites are compared to those obtained using Terfenol-D materials in the same conditions of size, shape, and volume ratio. It appears that a ferrite with an optimized composition has performances comparable to those obtained with Terfenol-D material. Nevertheless, the fabrication processes of ferrites are quite simpler. Finally, a ferrite/PZT based ME composite was used as a current sensor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fe1-xMx (M=Ga, Ge, Si, Al, Mo and x~0.18) alloys offer an extraordinary combination of magnetoelasticity and mechanical properties. They are rare-earth-free, can be processed using conventional deformation techniques, have high magnetic permeability, low hysteresis, and low magnetic saturation fields, making them attractive for device applications such as actuators and energy harvesters. Starting with Fe-Ga as a reference and using a rigid-band-filling argument, Zhang et al. predicted that lowering the Fermi level by reducing the total number of electrons could enhance magnetoelasticity. To provide a direct experimental validation for Zhang's hypothesis, elemental additions with lower-than-Ga valence are needed. Of the possible candidates, only Be and Zn have sufficient solubility. Single crystals of bcc Fe-Ga-Zn have been grown with up to 4.6 at.% Zn in a Bridgman furnace under elevated pressure (15 bars) in order to overcome the high vapor pressure of Zn and obtain homogeneous crystals. Single-crystal measurements of magnetostriction and elastic constants allow for the direct comparison of the magnetoelastic coupling constants of Fe-Ga-Zn with those of other magnetoelastic alloys in its class. The partial substitution of Ga with Zn yields values for the magnetoelastic coupling factor, -b1, comparable to those of the binary Fe- Ga alloy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effect of magnetostriction-induced core magnetomechanical vibrations and noise on the magnetic properties of power transformers. The magnetostriction of grain-oriented Si steels was found to be extremely sensitive to compressive stress applied along the rolling direction and to tensile stress applied along the transverse direction. The compressive stress increased the variation in the magnitude of magnetostriction, which is correlated with core vibration and noise. A 2D model of the power transformer was used to simulate the noise and vibration variables through a finite element analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents two-dimensional magnetostriction of electrical steel sheet under vector magnetic characteristic. In conventional measurement method using Single Sheet Tester, the magnetic flux density, the magnetic field strength, and the magnetostriction have been measured in one direction. However, an angle between the magnetic flux density vector and the magnetic field strength vector exists because the magnetic property is vector quantity. An angle between the magnetic flux density vector and the direction of maximum magnetostriction also exists. We developed a new measurement method, which enables measurement of these angles. The vector magnetic characteristic and the two-dimensional magnetostriction have been measured using the new measurement method. The BH and Bλ curves considering the angles are shown in this paper. The analyzed results considering the angles are also made clear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetostrictive amorphous ribbons are widely used in electronic article surveillance as well as for magnetoelastic sensors. Both applications utilize the fact that the ribbons' resonant frequency can be read out remotely by applying external magnetic AC fields. This paper proposes a magnetomechanical model to simulate the dynamics of such ribbons. The goal was to only use general material properties as input parameters, which are usually denoted in the data sheet of amorphous metals. Thus, only the magnetization curve at zero stress has to be gained via measurement. The magnetization under stress is calculated thereof. The equation of motion for a longitudinally oscillating ribbon is derived and coupled to Maxwell's equations for magnetostatics. The fully coupled initial value problem is solved simultaneously by a finite difference approach. The model is validated by comparing calculated and measured resonant frequencies of various amorphous ribbons, which turned out to be in good agreement. When slightly adapting single material properties from the data sheet, the match is almost perfect. The model is then used to calculate the local magnetic and mechanical properties inside static and vibrating ribbons. These local distributions can be directly linked to the field dependence of the resonant frequency and its higher harmonics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A low-frequency magnetoelectric (ME) response model of magnetostrictive/piezoelectric laminate composites based on multi-parameter analysis is presented. This model, taken the shear effect as the basis, analyzes the stress and strain of the magnetostrictive and piezoelectric layers by the stress function. The interlayer shear stress and the low-frequency ME response characteristics of ME laminate composites are obtained by using Hamilton principle of minimum energy and in consideration of the influence of stored magnetic field energy of magnetostrictive layer. The theoretical results show that the ME voltage coefficient is related with the magnetic permeability, Poisson ratio, magnetomechanical coupling coefficient, thickness ratio of magnetostrictive material and the Poisson ratio and electromechanical coupling coefficient of piezoelectric material. The influence of these parameters is analyzed. The experimental results show that analytical results are also compared to experimental test data with excellent correlation and their errors are less than 6%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crystal nucleation in undercooled melts of the stoichiometric PdZr2 compound is studied by measuring the nucleation undercooling of small droplets processed by containerless electrostatic and electromagnetic levitation. Owing to the avoidance of container walls usually acting as heterogeneous nuclei, large undercoolings are achieved. The statistics of crystal nucleation is investigated by measuring the nucleation undercooling of at least 100 melting and solidification cycles for both sets of experiments. The results are analyzed within a statistical approach based on the classical nucleation theory. Out of this two important parameters can be extracted. These are the activation energy, which needs to be overcome to form critical nuclei and, the pre-factor in the nucleation rate equation, which measures the number of potential nucleation sites per unit volume. The results are discussed with respect to the different experimental conditions, short-range order in the undercooled liquid state and its impact to the glass forming ability of this alloy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work we present a detailed study on the magnetostrictive contribution to Poisson ratio for samples under applied mechanical stress. Magnetic contributions to strain and Poisson ratio for cubic materials were derived by accounting elastic and magneto-elastic anisotropy contributions. We apply our theoretical results for a material of interest in magnetomechanics, namely, galfenol (Fe1-xGax). Our results show that there is a non-negligible magnetic contribution in the linear portion of the curve of stress versus strain. The rotation of the magnetization towards [110] crystallographic direction upon application of mechanical stress leads to an auxetic behavior, i.e., exhibiting Poisson ratio with negative values. This magnetic contribution to auxetic behavior provides a novel insight for the discussion of theoretical and experimental developments of materials that display unusual mechanical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new type of magnetoelastic device for sensing force is described. It consists of two elements: a circumferentially magnetized tube of magnetoelastically active material, mounted as a beam and loaded by the force to be sensed, and a magnetic field sensor mounted at or near the tube's surface, at or near a longitudinal location where the bending moment is maximum and at a circumferential location where the stress is zero. The flexural loading is shown to cause a variation in the circumferential magnetization with angular position. This variation is the source of free poles, the field from which is a measure of the applied force. Analysis predicts, and experiments demonstrate that the field intensity is a linear analog of the force over a significant range of push and pull forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bulk ferromagnetic shape memory Fe68-Pd30-Rh2 and Fe66-Pd30-Rh4 (at. %) alloys were strain-forged to produce a 35%-40% reduction in thickness. The reduced alloys were thermally annealed at 950-1050 °C for various times to induce recrystallization. The magnetostriction test demonstrated that the grain size reduction of recrystallization had a direct influence on the magnetic properties of the materials. The magnetostrictive strain measurements revealed that the strain-forged metal treated with thermal recrystallization to induce the fine-grained structure had a higher magnetostriction as well as a higher magnetostrictive susceptibility (Δλ‖ s /Δ H). It was also found that at room temperature, the saturation magnetostriction (λs=77x10-6) of the fine-grained Fe- Pd-Rh alloys strain-forged with thermal recrystallization was higher than that of those without grain size reduction (λs=50-56x10-6), where λs is (2/3)[λ‖ s-λ⊥ s]. In addition, with the magnetic field applied perpendicular to the sample's longitude, the fine-grained Fe-Pd-Rh material contracted by as much as λ⊥ s=-36x10-6. This value is about three times higher than that of alloys without grain size reduction. Microstructure investigation indicated that a magnetic applied field normal to the sample's longitude caused high contraction (λ⊥ s) of the fine-grained Fe-Pd-Rh alloys, which could be ascribed mainly to the grain refinement as well as deformation twins or microtwins (transformation and transverse twins). The study demonstrates that the magnetostrictive strains of Fe-Pd-Rh alloys induced in the L10 martensite by the magnetic field can be attributed to the reorientation of the L10 martensite twin structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

his paper investigates the origin of large magnetostriction in Fe-Ga alloys using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and Kerr microscopy. The SANS data for a single-crystal, electron irradiated, and quenched Fe81Ga19 sample under externally applied magnetic and elastic fields revealed the existence of magnetostrictive nanoclusters spaced at ∼15 nm apart that have a different magnetization than the A2 matrix. Combining the SANS results and the magnetization orientation obtained from the magnetic domain images using a Kerr microscope, it appears that the nanoclusters contribute significantly to the macroscopic magnetostriction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A correction to the article "Effects of Magnetomechanical Vibrations and Bending Stresses on Three-Phase Three-Leg Transformers With Amorphous Cores" by Chang-Hung Hsu and colleagues, published online on March 9, 2012, is presented.

The resistance of a ferromagnetic cylindrical Ni nano-constriction has been measured as a function of the external magnetic field. Typical profiles of the resistance versus external field are observed with irreversible jumps separated by stable plateaus, showing systematic slow relaxation effects. An interpretation in terms of magnetomechanical strain at the level of the constriction is proposed. This scenario allows the slow relaxation behaviour to be understood in terms of displacement of dislocations or similar metastable structural defects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stress and magnetostriction induced by flux pinning for a flat superconducting strip of a type II superconductor are calculated analytically in the presence of transport current. The plane stress approach is used to find the exact solutions. By assuming that the current density is magnetic field independent, the body force and normal stress distributions for increasing and decreasing transport currents are given. In addition, the pinning induced magnetostriction is calculated. The results show that, during the transport current reduction, tensile stress may occur. It is worth pointing out that, in the flat superconducting strip with transport current, the stresses are mainly negative. The hysteresis loop of the magnetostriction cannot be observed for the full cycle of the transport current. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The temperature dependence of the magnetoelastic properties of the CoGaxFe2-xO4 system (for x = 0.0, 0.2, and 0.4) has been studied. It has been shown that increase in temperature resulted in reduced magnetostrictive hysteresis. For both CoGa0.2Fe1.8O4 and CoGa0.4Fe1.6O4, the measured magnetostriction amplitudes were higher at 250 K than at 150 K. It was also shown that the temperature stability of magnetostriction in CoGa0.2Fe1.8O4 is higher than that of the other compositions studiedwhich is important for sensor applications. The highest strain sensitivity was obtained for CoGa0.2Fe1.8O4 at 250 K. Results demonstrate the possibility of tailoring magnetomechanical properties of the material to suit intended applications under varying temperature conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work proposes a simplified model applicable to devices based on magnetostrictive materials conceived to be implemented in the control of a micropositioner. The 1D magnetomechanical dynamic model of the active material is based on the Preisach hysteresis model and includes classical eddy currents. The model has been used in a digital signal processing procedure for the determination of the supply current tracking position. Comparisons with experiments, obtained by controlling the actual micropositioner in an open loop chain, are satisfactory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]