Search

Abstract Time has consistently been regarded as the missing dimension from our renderings of space, having a significant impact on how we interpret and represent past interaction. Nowhere is this more keenly felt than in discussion of maritime mobility. This paper outlines an innovative approach to mapping maritime spaces by taking into account the performance of Bronze Age sailing ships in different weather conditions and the subsequent time of sailing journeys. The use of cartograms is demonstrated to be invaluable for reconceptualisation of maritime space and rethinking maritime connectivity in the past. This marks a step-change in approach, which has implications for regions beyond the case study area (eastern Mediterranean). The results presented in this paper foreground meaningful differences in maritime connectivity between Egypt and the Levant during the earlier Bronze Age than are easily realised through traditional static representations. This demonstrates the significance of developing alternative representations of space/time for archaeology. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Mediation with mapping for maritime spaces. • Modelling the maritime space-time of ancient sailing by accounting for environmental rhythms and vessel performance. • Distorting space according to time with linear cartograms. • Rethinking maritime connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a detailed response to Professor Pernicka's critique of our paper entitled “Iridium to provenance ancient silver”. We have concluded that Pernicka's hypothesis, which suggests that elevated levels of iridium in ancient silver artefacts is a consequence of silver deriving from the cementation (parting) process, does not account for the available evidence and that his critiques of the analyses we presented seem misplaced. We offer a simpler solution and show that the structure of our transformed data is founded on logical reasoning which is borne out by the empirical results. Essentially, this response supports our view reported in the original paper that the variation in iridium in ancient silver is largely geological rather than a consequence of de-silvering gold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different approaches are used to study wood provenance, but most of them are based on tracers in wood that are generally controlled by climatic factors. The strontium isotopic ratio 87 Sr/ 86 Sr in trees and soils is related to the signature of the local bedrock. Despite being used in diverse archaeological studies, Sr isotopes have rarely been used to trace the provenance of archaeological wood and especially wood from shipwrecks. In addition, recent analytical advances have allowed the detection of mass-dependent fractionation of Sr isotopes during biogeochemical processes, as reflected in the variation of δ 88/86 Sr values between different environmental materials. The δ 88/86 Sr values could be used in conjunction with the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope ratio to improve constraints on the sources of Sr in the archaeological materials being studied. This paper discusses the potential and limitations of using both of these Sr isotope ratios to trace the provenance of wood from shipwrecks. We review the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and δ 88/86 Sr variations in rocks, waters, soils, plants and other living organisms and discuss how to determine the local Sr isotopic signature of potential sites. We also compile a list of known wood post mortem modifications in seawater. Possible implications in terms of the modification of the original Sr isotope ratios of wood during storage in seawater are illustrated through preliminary observations. This paper points out some limitations and perspectives for using Sr isotopes in provenancing wood from shipwrecks, and suggests future research to test and apply this approach for tracing the origin of archaeological wood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over 30 years ago, Kintigh and Ammerman (1982) outlined and applied a heuristic approach to spatial archaeology that balanced quantitative analyses and culturally and historically contextualized archaeology. The theoretical and methodological messages were that we need to do more than “eyeball” spatial patterns, we need to apply the proper analyses based on the characteristics of our datasets, and we need to ensure that our models, quantitative analyses, and resulting interpretations are based in the proper cultural and historical contexts. My goal in this paper is to examine how two of the concepts in this approach, significance and context, apply to a modern spatial archaeology that heavily utilizes geospatial computing tools. Although these tools help to solve several concerns that existed in the field 30 years ago, they can also cause others, such as mistaking autocorrelation for correlation or confusion about which of the multitude of available analytical tools is appropriate for particular questions and datasets. In this paper, I present a simplified version of the methodology I have used to address these concerns. I use archaeological, historical, and GIS-modeled data to compare the regional patterning of hierarchical and egalitarian societies in southeastern North America to examine why hierarchical sociopolitical organizations may have arose where they did. I end with a critical review of this approach and a discussion of how such research can be improved moving forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being human embodies understandings of space and spatial relationships which are embedded within the material world and are underpinned by complex frameworks of knowledge and experience. Just as this applied to people living in the past, so it applies to those of us concerned with trying to understand those past lives through the archaeological record. Most, if not all, archaeological material has a spatial component and it is not surprising, therefore, that spatial thinking has been central within archaeological endeavour since the beginnings of the discipline. Specific forms of spatial thinking have changed with developing theory and methods and with changing analytical and technological opportunities resulting in the rich variety of approaches available to us today. Within this development, the rapid adoption of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology since the early 1990s has had a major impact on archaeology and related disciplines and its use is now almost taken for granted. Although the use of GIS in archaeology has always been, and still is contentious at the theoretical level, the attractions of the technology are usually seen to outweigh any restrictions or disadvantages. In this paper we situate the use of GIS, including the papers in this volume, within the wider arena of spatial thinking in archaeology in an attempt to assess the impact that this technology has had on how we think spatially. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the nature of copying errors in the cultural transmission of material culture is highly relevant for students of cultural evolution, especially in the field of evolutionary archaeology. In this paper, we set up a classic transmission chain experiment, which involves making clay anthropomorphic figurines, to explore the nature of the copying error related to the production of 3D objects. The experiment consists of four independent transmission chains, each with 10 participants. Three chains are non-expert chains, as they consist of students of archaeology and psychology with no formal training in arts. The fourth is an expert chain consisting of art students. Our results show that the copying error predictably differs between the experts and the non-experts – it is lower in the expert chain. However, in both groups, the error is higher than predicted by the models that assume that the copying error is only due to imperfections in the perception of linear dimensions. Taken together, these two results suggest that, in addition to the error in perception, the error in the execution contributes significantly to the overall error, as predicted by the recently formulated object-mediated transmission model (Crema et al., 2023). The results of our experiment also show that the errors are often biased rather than random, suggesting that the transmission process involves the transformations anticipated by the cultural attraction theory. • Transmission chain experiment is carried out with clay anthropomorphic figurines. • Copying error of linear dimensions is higher than the Weber fraction (3%). • Art students make less error than other students in copying features of figurines. • Copying errors are often biased, as predicted by the cultural attraction theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue examines new trends in phytolith scholarship and assesses the future direction of this field of research. The papers presented represent a broader shift in phytolith research into a new phase called the “Period of Expanding Applications”. It is characterized by 1) a rapid increase in the number of phytolith publications; 2) a diversification of research topics; 3) a reassessment of the use of radiocarbon and other isotopes in phytoliths; 4) the development of digital technologies for refining and sharing phytolith identifications; 5) renewed efforts for standardization of phytolith nomenclature and laboratory protocol; and 6) the development of the field of applied phytolith research. This paper argues that interdisciplinary collaborations and a continued effort to understand the basics of phytolith production patterns are essential for the growth of the discipline and its application in archaeological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As archaeologists continue to be interested in understanding how people encountered and engaged with past landscapes, layering them with social knowledge, it is important to harness geospatial techniques that are not tethered analytically to discrete points and can represent the flow of processes across a whole landscape. This paper explores landscape permeability modeling as one such geospatial approach. Applied archaeologically, permeability modeling examines the degree to which a given landscape, with a specific mix of physical and social variables, was conducive to the movement of people and the flow of social, economic, political, and/or ideological processes. An archaeological case study is presented that uses a resistant-kernel permeability model to examine food storage suitability in an inland lake landscape in northern Michigan during Late Precontact (ca. AD 1100/1200 – 1600) and how people in their intimate, day-to-day, encounters with this landscape understood the storage potential(s) of this matrix. While a specific case is detailed in this paper, the procedures employed are adaptable to other archaeological landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aboriginal people have lived in Australia, continuously, for tens of thousands of years. Over that time, they developed complex knowledge systems that were committed to memory and passed to successive generations through oral tradition. The length of time oral traditions can be passed down while maintaining vitality is a topic of ongoing debate in the social sciences. In recent years, scientists have weighed into the debate by studying traditions that describe natural events, such as volcanic eruptions and meteorite impacts, which can be dated using scientific techniques. Here, we bring together a trans-disciplinary team of scholars to apply this approach to Tasmanian Aboriginal (palawa) oral traditions that were recorded in the early nineteenth century. These traditions describe the flooding of the Bassian Land Bridge connecting Tasmania to mainland Australia and the presence of a culturally significant "Great South Star", identified as Canopus (α Carinae). Utilising bathymetric and topographic data of the land and sea floor in the Bass Strait, we estimate the Bassian Land Bridge was finally submerged approximately 12,000 years ago. We then calculate the declination of the star Canopus over the last precessional cycle (26,000 years) to show that it was at a far southerly declination (δ < −75°) between 16,300 and 11,800 years ago, reaching its minimum declination approximately 14,000 years ago. These lines of evidence provide a terminus ante quem of the Tasmanian traditions to the end of the Late Pleistocene. This paper supports arguments that the longevity of orality can exceed ten millennia, providing critical information essential to the further development of theoretical frameworks regarding the archaeology of orality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper introduces a special issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science that considers the current state and future directions in lithic microwear analysis. There is considerable potential for lithic microwear analysis to reconstruct past human behaviour as it can provide direct insight into past activities. Consequently, it is a technique worthy of significant additional investment and continued development. To further the cause of methodological maturation within microwear analysis and to promote standardization, calibration, and innovation, the following collection of papers present various approaches and perspectives on how greater methodological refinement and increased reliability of results can and should be achieved. Many of these papers were part of a session held at the 2011 Society for American Archaeology Meeting (SAA) in Sacramento, California, while others were selected from the 2012 International Conference on Use-Wear Analysis in Faro, Portugal. The purpose of the SAA session and this special themed issue is essentially two-fold. The first is to promote awareness of the need for methodological standardization, calibration, and continuing innovation. The second is to open a serious dialogue about how these aims could be pursued and achieved. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the usefulness of bootstrapping in Correspondence Analysis when applied to archaeological data. By simulating and displaying possible variation within the data sets, bootstrapping provides us with a means to assess the stability of our CA maps and influences the interpretations we can place upon them. Five real data sets are examined and the results discussed. The paper concludes that bootstrapping is a useful and powerful way of examining the results of CA and should be employed on a regular basis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents the results of the taphonomic analysis of the burials from Tell Halula (Middle Euphrates Valley, Syria). The numerous burials recovered from this Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) settlement, in addition to the large volume of field documentation, have provided an opportunity to study burials in more depth than is usually allowed. This data set is important because of the unique mode of deposition, the exceptional preservation of the related assemblages (including fabrics, mats, and basketry) and the highly standardized nature of the funerary practices. Although the burials were found in various stages of preservation and articulation, we will show that they all represented the same type of funerary deposit, namely seated burials, often encased in bottle-shaped funerary bundles, and that the variability found during excavation can be attributed to post-depositional taphonomic effects. We provide a study of the different forms that result from these taphonomic influences and highlight the importance of doing this type of analysis. We hope that this paper will be a valuable contribution to the growing body of literature surrounding both seated burials and the taphonomy of burials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Investigations into the development of weapon systems are increasingly important in archaeological debates about human evolution and behavioural variability. ‘Diagnostic’ impact fractures are key, but controversial, lines of evidence commonly used in such investigations. In 2009 a series of experiments was initiated to investigate the processes associated with macrofracture formation specifically focussing on the taphonomic factors affecting the formation of ‘diagnostic’ impact fractures (DIFs). This paper adds to that experimental data set with macrofracture results from recent knapping experiments investigating rock type variability and DIF formation. These results show that rock type variation plays less of a role in DIF formation than variables related to use and lithic taphonomy. The collective results of this experimental series show that the location, co-occurrence, type and proximity to retouch on a tool are all important means of distinguishing between weapon and non-weapon related DIFs. Collectively these macrofracture patterns are more important in diagnosing weapon components than any one ‘diagnostic’ impact fracture is alone. Overall, these experimental studies are showing that background ‘noise’ in the form of non-hunting related impact fractures, exists in many macrofracture results and that much work remains in securing the analytical robusticity of the method. The paper concludes that the macrofracture method is not a stand-alone method, but when used with caution and in conjunction with other lines of evidence it is a useful, time-efficient, tool for generating assemblage-level use-trace data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper creates and applies a computational model of irrigation agriculture in order to study the effects of salinization in Mesopotamia, with the model developed applicable to cases beyond that studied here. Scholars have long suspected that central and southern Mesopotamia present environments which limited agricultural production over the long-term. In regions such as central Mesopotamia, where salinization likely affected settlement and agriculture in different periods but was more manageable than in more southern regions, fallowing regimes, natural and engineered leaching, and decisions made on when to crop were strategies applied in order to limit the effects of salinization. In this paper, we assess the effectiveness of these coping strategies by incorporating projected climate, soil, and landscape conditions with agricultural practices. The simulation results not only demonstrate the effectiveness and limitations of inhibiting progressive salinization, but they can be compared with the archaeological record in order to determine if the results could reasonably be matched with past events and help to interpret settlement history. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Using archaeological data, this paper investigates past population trends in Ireland as a response to recent genomic studies that have identified admixture signals in the genomes of Irish people caused by historically-recorded migration events. Among these was Norse settlement in the 9th-10th Centuries CE, which has a greater than expected signal in the contemporary population of the island. Here, we contextualise these discoveries using a large database of recently discovered archaeological sites with radiocarbon dates that we have analysed using Kernel Density Estimation techniques. We argue that the Viking migrations occurred following a 300-year period of population decrease in Ireland. This new, data-driven synthesis of the archaeological record contrasts with previous accounts of early medieval Ireland as a period of ever-growing expansion and progression. However, this new interpretation is also aligned to evidence for economic and environmental change, including recent discoveries concerning the soil nitrogen cycle and agricultural intensification. We compare historical evidence for Viking migrations to later episodes of migration between Britain and Ireland, where more details are known about the size of the incoming groups, ultimately wishing to confront the opinion that past population sizes cannot be fathomed for cultures without documentary records. Through comparison with historic analyses and census records, we make broad estimates of absolute population size in Ireland since prehistoric times, including during these demographic events, and argue that much value is added to genomic evidence for migration when these points in time are contextualised in terms of evolving population trends. • A database containing over 8000 radiocarbon dates of human activity in Ireland has been assembled. • Contextualizing the data for the period 400 to 1200 CE reveals a pronounced oscillation in activity throughout the landscape. • A long-term population model has been developed for Ireland using these radiocarbon data and historical records. • We suggest haplotype admixture in Ireland took place in the context of long term population decline. • These results mirror recent palaeoisotope studies of intensification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The site of Nogara (province of Verona, Italy) provides valuable insights into the complexities of the glass industry in mid-Medieval times, due to its timing, which ranges mainly between the 10th and 11th centuries AD, and to the great quantity of glass findings, mainly tableware. In the present paper, the combination of archaeological, chemical and textural data allows us to identify production technologies in a time-interval perceived to be a period of technological transition for glass. In particular, the frequent occurrence of recycled natron glass and only a few glass samples made with soda plant ash indicate that recycling of earlier glass was common in inland Northern Italy in the 10th–11th centuries AD. In addition, blue and reticello decorations were obtained by recycling earlier glass mosaic tesserae, as shown by much Co, Cu, Sn, Sb and Pb and the presence of crystallised calcium antimonates. A few glass samples with chemical compositions intermediate between natron and soda plant ash glass were also identified, suggesting a gradual change in glass composition from natron-based towards soda ash-based production technology, which prevailed in the 13th-14th centuries. In conclusion, the difficulty in describing mid-Medieval glass as a well-defined entity, due to the great propensity for recycling earlier glass samples which causes variability in chemical compositions, particularly those of trace elements, is clearly documented here. In any case, this paper contributes to a new type of chrono-typological scanning and to more detailed knowledge of glass production technology during mid-Medieval times in Northern Italy, little found in the literature until now. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As modern humans grapple with the repercussions of their extensive environmental impacts, archaeologists are increasingly looking toward the past to understand the nature and extent of prehistoric human impact on the environment. Many researchers rely heavily on archaeological correlates of resource intensification as a proxy measures of resource depletion, a profound and often catastrophic human impact. However, the traditional conceptualization of the archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification disregards a large amount of species-specific variation. This paper presents archaeomalacological data from Santa Cruz Island, California. The shell midden deposits CA-SCRI-480 contain a high density of Tivela stultorum (Pismo clam). Statistical analysis of the shellfish assemblage reveals significant variation in both the size and quantity of Pismo clam that people collected through time. This paper investigates this unique patterning with due consideration of the natural ecology and life history of the species and illustrates species-specific deviation from the traditional archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification. Increased collaboration with ecologists and biologists can help refine models of intensification when necessary in order create more sophisticated understanding of prehistoric human–resource interactions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper introduces GIS-based statistical methods for the study of settlement patterning in an archaeological context. The main aspect is an improvement over suboptimal stepwise statistical model selection procedures, with the introduction of a Deletion/Substitution/Addition (DSA) algorithm, a systematic model selection algorithm that provides an optimal model choice. The paper also introduces the combined use of Receiving Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves, and variable ranking as key tools aimed at an understanding of settlement patterning causation. An illustrative case study is provided whereby both a purely environmental and a mixed environmental/historical model (based on settlement hierarchy considerations) are investigated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The analysis and preservation of organic materials preserved within wetland environments represents one of the most costly parts of any post-excavation strategy. This paper outlines the application of high-resolution terrestrial laser scanning to one class of preserved material, worked archaeological wood. Scanning allowed the recording of the artefacts in three dimensions and the identification of features such as toolmarks. Features can be measured and volumetrically modelled within the digital environment, which may not always be possible for these often fragile materials using conventional techniques. Repeat scanning of the artefacts provided an opportunity to use comparative analysis software to investigate changes in the morphology of artefacts under contrasting conditions of short-term storage. The results suggest that immersion in water results in the least deterioration, whereas both freezing and air-drying caused distortion and degradation. This paper demonstrates that laser scanning provides a viable alternative post-excavation method for the recording, analysis and long-term ‘virtual archiving’ of organic archaeological materials, which may be more cost-effective in some instances than other methods of preservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents new chronological data applied to the problem of providing a date for the construction of a prehistoric building, with a case study from the Old Scatness Broch, Shetland. The innovative methodology employed utilises the combination of radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates with the archaeological information, which includes the stratigraphic relationships of sampled deposits, context information, and evidence relating to the formation of the deposit. This paper discusses the scientific validity of the dates produced, and the advantages that the methodology employed at this site offers for archaeological interpretation. The combined dating evidence suggests that the broch at Old Scatness is earlier than the conventionally accepted dates for broch construction. More broadly it shows the value of integration of the specialists at the planning stages of the excavation. The application of a Bayesian statistical model to the sequences of dates allowed investigation of the robustness of the dates within the stratigraphic sequences, as well as increasing the resolution of the resulting chronology. In addition, the value of utilising multiple dating techniques on the same deposit was demonstrated, as this allowed different dated events to be directly compared as well as issues relating to the formation of the sampled deposit. This in turn impacted on the chronological significance of the resulting dating evidence, and therefore the confidence that could be placed in the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The reasons for megafaunal extinction in Australia have been hotly debated for over 30 years without any clear resolution. The proposed causes include human overkill, climate, anthropogenic induced habitat change or a combination of these. Most protagonists of the human overkill model suggest the impact was so swift, occurring within a few thousand years of human occupation of the continent, that archaeological evidence should be rare or non-existent. In Tasmania the presence of extinct megafauna has been known since the early twentieth century () with earlier claims of human overlap being rejected because of poor chronology and equivocal stratigraphic associations. More recent archaeological research has not identified any megafauna from the earliest, exceptionally well-preserved late Pleistocene cultural sites. In 2008 however an argument for human induced megafaunal extinctions was proposed using the direct dates from a small sample of surface bone from two Tasmanian non-human caves and a museum sediment sample from an unknown location in a cave, since destroyed by quarrying (). supplemented their data with published dates from other Tasmanian caves and open sites to argue for the survival of at least seven megafauna species from the last interglacial to the subsequent glacial stage. To investigate the timing of extinctions in Tasmania and examine the latest claims, new excavations and systematic surveys of limestone caves in south central Tasmania were undertaken. Our project failed to show any clear archaeological overlap of humans and megafauna but demonstrated that vigilance is needed when claiming survival of megafauna species based on old or suspect chronologies. The results of our six-years of fieldwork and dating form the first part of the present paper while, in the second part we assess the data advanced by for the late survival of seven megafauna species. A model of human prey selection and the reasons for the demise of a range of marsupials, now extinct, are discussed in the third part of the paper. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Journal of Archaeological Science first appeared in 1974 as an explicitly interdisciplinary medium, linking archaeology with the natural sciences, and one that emphasizes methodological innovation. This editorial analysis examines the steady growth of the journal from 400 to 3200 print pages per annum, and from a small to a large, double-column format. The impact factor increased until it became the leading archaeological journal overall. Tracking the published papers according to national origin, manuscripts from the USA began to outpace those from the UK in 1990, and Australia, South Africa and Canada are well represented. After 2000 the influx of papers from non-Anglophone countries also increased rapidly until by 2008 they exceeded those from the UK or USA. A growing interest for archaeological science is suggested in Mediterranean countries such as France, Israel, Spain and Italy. Thematic trends are more difficult to track due to the growing structural complexity of many papers. That said, there is no striking thematic shift, confirming the viability of the inclusive philosophy and diversity of the journal, and its balance between problems and analytical innovation, as applied to significant archaeological issues. Possible editorial responses to changing directions in archaeology are discussed. For all scientific periodicals, the efficacy of the peer-review system today is challenged by the increasing numbers of journals and manuscripts, together with the greater specialization of high-tech methods. This demands greater professional responsibility as well as new solutions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The composition of Late Bronze Age Egyptian faience and glass is thought to reflect the composition of the raw material used in their production, particularly plant ash. This paper argues that there are strong and systematic shifts between the plant ash composition and the resulting glass, as a function of inherent technical processes during both the wet preparation and subsequent drying of faience glazes, and the smelting of glass from its raw materials. These factors lead on the one hand to significant differences in glaze composition from identical raw materials due to different glazing techniques being used, and on the other hand to a homogenisation of glass compositions which may obscure more subtle differences in initial raw material composition. The paper aims to explore the various factors at work, briefly summarizing recent publications and current thought on the subject, in the hope to raise awareness of the issues involved, and to stimulate further research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inter-population differences in skeletal and dental growth and maturation are acknowledged frequently in the biological anthropological literature. These growth differences have implications for the reliability of standards for the estimation of age at death of archaeological subadults. The number of archaeological projects that are recovering human burials from non-European contexts, including Southeast Asia, and the increasing interest in subadult bioarchaeological studies provides the impetus for investigating this issue of ageing subadult individuals from these populations. This paper aims to address some of the problems of the representativeness of ageing standards for non-European children in bioarchaeology. This is achieved through a literature review of the issue of growth variability and age estimation, and a basic comparison of the commonly applied age estimation method based on North American children with a dental formation study of modern Thai children. Although these studies do not employ similar methods the Thai study is the only comparable data available and therefore serves as a starting point to address these issues. The results raise an important question for bioarchaeologists of the appropriateness of available ageing methods. In addition this paper emphasises the need for the use of appropriate methodologies in the collection and presentation of dental formation data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Archaeological research in the territory of Sagalassos is a multidisciplinary project covering scientific disciplines traditionally linked to archaeology and also new technologies such as very high-resolution remote sensing with sufficient radiometric and spatial resolution (<2.5m). This paper focuses on the evaluation of GIS-, pixel- and object-based techniques for automatic extraction of archaeological features from Ikonos-2 satellite imagery, which are then compared to a visual interpretation of ancient structures. The study was carried out on the unexcavated archaeological site of Hisar (southwest Turkey). Although all techniques are able to detect archaeological structures from Ikonos-2 imagery, none of them succeed in extracting features in a unique spectral class. Various landscape elements, including archaeological remains, can be automatically classified when their spectral characteristics are different. However, major difficulties arise when extracting and classifying archaeological features such as wall remnants, which are composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate. Additionally, archaeological structures do not have unique shape or colour characteristics, which can make the extraction more straightforward. In contrast to automatic extraction methods, a simple visual interpretation performs rather well. The methods presented in this paper can be applied with variable success to archaeological structures composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate, which is often the case. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Phosphorus (P) is unique among the elements in being a sensitive and persistent indicator of human activity. It has long been of interest to archaeologists because of its potential to inform them about the presence of past human occupation and to offer clues regarding the type and intensity of human activity. A wide variety of methods have been developed in both soil science and in archaeology to extract and measure soil P, resulting in a tremendous amount of data and a wide array of interpretations, but also considerable confusion over appropriateness of methods and terminology. The primary purpose of this paper is to address these issues by clarifying soil P analyses. Anthropogenic additions of phosphorus to the soil come from human refuse and waste, burials, the products of animal husbandry in barns, pens, and on livestock paths, or intentional enrichment from soil fertilizer. Once added to the soil, phosphorus in its common form as phosphate is stable and generally immobile in soils. Soil P comes in many forms, organized for the purposes of this paper on the basis of extraction and measurement procedures as (1) extraction for available P (Pav); (2) portable field techniques (the spot test or ring test); (3) chemical digestion of a soil sample for total P (Ptot); (4) extractions of inorganic P (Pin) for fractionation studies and extractions to look at individual compounds of P; (5) measurements of organic P (Porg); and (6) extractions for total elemental analysis. To compare the suitability of various extractants as the “best” indicator of human input and activity we subjected samples from three very different archaeological sites (Lubbock Lake, TX; Hulburt Creek, IA; British Camp, WA) to four methods of soil P extraction: perchloric acid digestion (Ptot), sulfuric–nitric acid extraction Ptot), hydrochloric acid extraction after ignition (Pin), and citric acid extraction (Pav). Further, methods of measurement were compared via colorimetry vs. Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) spectrometry, and the two methods of supposed “total P” were both measured via ICP. In general, the stronger extractants yielded more soil P, but the result are not clear-cut. Likely variables include the intensity of occupation, nature of the parent material, and postdepositional weathering (e.g., the addition of dust). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In our previous paper—Calcite crystals inside archaeological plant tissue (J. Archaeol. Sci. 27 (2000) 981–985), we reported the presence of mineral crystals in archaeological samples of cultivated plants founded in rock-shelters used by pre-historical Brazilian human populations.In this paper, we respond to some of the questions and comments raised about our data and conclusions, presented in comments from M.G. Canti and from J.E´. Brochier and M. Thinon. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Lead (Pb) concentration and isotope analyses in human remains are powerful analytical tools used to examine differences in Pb exposure over time or between populations and to examine the movement of peoples and Pb-containing cultural materials. While there was a large increase in the use of dental tissues for measuring Pb in the last 30 years, there has yet to be a critical evaluation of how these analyses are conducted or the data are used to answer archaeological questions. This article reviews 55 papers published between 1979 and 2021 on Pb concentrations and isotope analyses of teeth from archaeological populations to examine how they were used, areas where they were misused or insufficient information given, current limitations of the approaches, and future studies needed. This was applied across three broad topics: sample choice, concentration interpretation, and isotopic ratio interpretation. While major limitations exist, largely related to missing information in methodological approaches, there are a few overarching themes of use that need to be considered. First is considering the biological/cultural age of the teeth and therefore of the individuals represented, and the variability introduced when comparing disparate tooth types. Second, is the need to consider archaeological, ethnographic, and historical documentation when evaluating natural versus anthropogenic exposures. Finally, we recommend that greater consideration of the contributions from both environmental and cultural sources, including those that could be imported into different cultural regions. The consideration of all these factors is integral to future studies involving Pb concentration and isotope analyses in bioarchaeology. • Sample choice, preparation, and analytical technique details are often missing • Roles of natural versus anthropogenic sources should be assessed using archaeological, ethnographic, and historical contexts • Both imported and locally produced cultural material sources must be considered when interpreting Pb exposure [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We introduce the papers of the JAS Special Issue: Radiocarbon Dating that were presented at the First Frison Institute Symposium at the 2013 Society for American Archaeology annual meeting. Papers here fall into two categories that reflect two growing trends in archaeology: the use of summed probability distributions as measures of human population, and the use of Bayesian statistics to refine radiocarbon age estimates. While caution is required, these two methods combined offer archaeology the possibility of tracking change in the size of human populations through time and across space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earth-working spades were crafted from bone, stone, and wood in preindustrial societies. In the early Hemudu culture (7000-6000 BP) in eastern China, bone, particularly wild water buffalo scapulae, was preferred for crafting spades to modify the margins of wetlands for cultivation and occupation. Experimental and ethnographic research show that earth properties in the area adequately explains why wooden spades were less common; however, preference for bone spades over stone spades requires explanations beyond techno-functions during use. This paper identifies potential factors during the manufacturing procedure that might have encouraged the development and persistence of the scapular spade tradition. Replication experiments reconstructed the manufacturing procedure of the Hemudu scapular spade in comparison to that of a groundstone equivalent. The results showed that the manufacture knowledge was sophisticated for bone as well as for stone. However, the adequate level of know-how for successful production was lower for bone. Surprisingly, the costs in time and manufacturing tools for crafting a good enough bone tool were higher than those for a stone counterpart. In fact, the manufacture of bone tools involved the use of advanced groundstone tools. Overall, the Hemudu tool producers appear to have made their technological choices based on traditional conformity as well as resistance to motor skill adjustment rather than comprehensive cost-benefit assessment. The persistence of the scapular spade tradition led to increased investments into sophisticated modifications to cope with increasingly arduous earth-working tasks and likely led to increased investment into raw material procurement when bone raw materials became scarce. The results also suggest that technological ease and manufacturing costs in tool production should be evaluated carefully within the behavioral contexts, while taking into account that implements crafted from a variety of raw materials were employed in manufacturing the tool and that the costs and benefits in production are not equally perceivable to decision makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we present the results of a use-wear study of quartz micro-notches identified during a technological analysis of lithics from the Howiesons Poort layers of Sibudu Cave. Building on the technological analysis and preliminary functional screening of the archaeological material, a series of experiments was designed to evaluate different hypotheses for notch formation (blank production, intentional notching, hafting, projectile use, and trampling). The experimental reference collection was compared with archaeological micro-notches and a large sample of other archaeological quartz pieces (including bladelets, bipolar blanks, flakes and retouched pieces). This allowed us to evaluate the causes of micro-notch formation in the studied assemblage. Results indicate two novelties in the Howiesons Poort hunting technology at Sibudu: the use of quartz barbs and non-retouched quartz blanks. It seems that in addition to backed pieces (segments, obliquely backed points, etc.), unretouched pieces were mounted as elements in hunting weapons during the Howiesons Poort techno-tradition. Seven probable and 29 tentative barbs were identified. We thus present one of the strongest and oldest bodies of evidence for the use of barbs as projectile elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine archaeological surveying in deep waters has so far been challenging, mainly due to operational and technological constraints. The standard tool has been Side Scan Sonar (SSS) towed behind a surface vessel. Synthetic Aperture Sonar (SAS) technology is not subject to the traditional range/resolution trade-off, and produces results of considerably higher quality than traditional SSS. In 2015 and 2016 a comprehensive mapping of wrecks in Skagerrak, a large deepwater area off the south coast of Norway was undertaken, using an interferometric SAS system deployed on an autonomous underwater vehicle. By examining data from two passes of one of the many historical wrecks that were detected in the survey area, we demonstrate how SAS can be used to produce very high resolution imagery and bathymetry of wreck sites. Furthermore, post processing techniques are applied to exploit the high information content inherent in SAS data, enhancing aspects of the data for relevant archaeological analysis and interpretation. We show in this paper how SAS technology represents significant improvements in our abilities to conduct high quality and high resolution seabed mapping. The adoption of this technology will both benefit archaeological research and provide knowledge for better decision making in underwater cultural heritage management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The addition of pottery additives (temper) provides both production-based benefits gained during the initial vessel formation phase, and performance-based benefits associated with post-firing vessel daily use. This paper presents the results of a controlled archaeological experiment designed to assess the opportunity costs associated with the addition of temper to clay during prehistoric pottery production sequences. Specifically, this study builds upon earlier research using material science methods to more broadly assess whether vessel strength is sacrificed by the addition of temper into the clay body. Standardized experimental ceramic test specimens, based directly upon petrographic analysis of archaeological samples from a regional context (South Central Ohio, USA) and produced using glacially-deposited illite-based clay, were subjected to mechanical strength tests using an Instron Series IX universal testing machine. The results demonstrate that there are indeed opportunity costs associated with temper addition: lost potential strength and reduced vessel use-life. Overall, untempered samples were significantly stronger than samples tempered with the most commonly used regional tempers—grit, limestone, and burnt shell—in terms of peak load and modulus of rupture. In other words, the results presented here suggest that prehistoric potters were losing the opportunity to create significantly stronger vessels in favor of the benefits that come with the addition of temper. Understanding of the existence, kind, and degree of opportunity costs that come with the addition of temper to clay emphasizes just how important the benefits of tempering must have been for the technology to be invented, experimented with, and ultimately so widely adopted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As spatial technology has evolved and become integrated in to archaeology, we face a new set of challenges posed by the sheer size and complexity of data we use and produce. In this paper I discuss the prospects and problems of Geospatial Big Data (GBD) – broadly defined as data sets with locational information that exceed the capacity of widely available hardware, software, and/or human resources. While the datasets we create today remain within available resources, we nonetheless face the same challenges as many other fields that use and create GBD, especially in apprehensions over data quality and privacy. After reviewing the kinds of archaeological geospatial data currently available I discuss the near future of GBD in writing culture histories, making decisions, and visualizing the past. I use a case study from New Zealand to argue for the value of taking a data quantity-in-use approach to GBD and requiring applications of GBD in archaeology be regularly accompanied by a Standalone Quality Report. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the benefits of GIS are widely touted among archaeologists today, less attention has been paid to the potential pitfalls and drawbacks of this undeniably important methodological tool. One of the greatest challenges of geospatial modeling is unbalanced data: due to the nature of the archaeological record, we can never assume that the remnants of past behavioral processes we are working with constitute a fully representative sample. Rather, our datasets are reflective of differential social and natural preservation conditions, as well as research biases. Most regional geospatial studies must collate diverse data collected over decades by researchers with varying backgrounds and goals, using assorted spatial scales and levels of technological sophistication. Such factors contribute substantial uncertainty to our models, uncertainty that should be recognized, quantified, and mitigated. If GIS techniques are to continue shifting the way we conduct archaeology and improve our abilities to answer questions regarding past behavior, then we must question the infallibility of GIS as a methodological tool and direct more attention toward developing robust geospatial applications that can meet the idiosyncratic needs of archaeological analysis. This paper explores one example of how such uncertainty investigation can be conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analyses in archaeology have been criticized by archaeologists for being reductive, environmentally deterministic, and reproducing a disembodied experience of the landscape. However, research over the past 20 years has demonstrated the power of GIS data and analyses to explore complex social questions about past human experiences. Indigenous knowledges of landscapes have not often explicitly informed GIS analyses in archaeology, even though archaeologists and indigenous communities around the world are forging collaborative relationships. This paper proposes an integrated approach GIS-based least cost analysis, where Indigenous traditional knowledge, historical documentation, and archaeology can be brought together for a more nuanced and locally-grounded model of past landscapes. A case study from the movement of the Métis people of Canada is used to test typical models of cost path movement used in archaeology against known historic trails information, followed by a discussion of possible future applications of movement models and variables related to local Indigenous knowledge of current and past landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Southern Montane Forest-Grassland mosaic ecosystem in the humid subtropics southern Rift Valley of Africa comprised the environmental context for a large area in which modern human evolution and dispersal occurred. Variable climatic conditions during the Late Pleistocene have ranged between humid and hyperarid, changing the character of the ecosystem and transforming it at different points in time into a barrier, a refuge, and a corridor between southern and eastern African populations. Alluvial fans presently blanket the areas adjacent to major river systems, which were key areas of prehistoric human habitation. These sets of variables have created conditions that are both challenging and advantageous to conduct archaeological research. Lateritic soil development has resulted in poor organic preservation and facilitated insect bioturbation, which has demanded an integrated micro-macro scale approach to building a reliable geochronology. An integrated field and analytical methodology has also been employed to identify the nature and degree of post-depositional movement in alluvial deposits, which preserve a wide range of spatial integrity levels in buried stone artifact assemblages between 47 and 30 ka in Karonga, northern Malawi. This paper describes the methodological advances taken toward understanding open-air Middle Stone Age archaeology in sub-tropical Africa, and explores the inferential potential for understanding Pleistocene human ecology in the important southern Rift Valley region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pleistocene continent of Sahul was first settled by people who arrived by watercraft from Island South East Asia about 50,000 years ago. Some of the oldest archaeological sites in Sahul are located in the southern Kimberley, in northwest Australia. This area lies within the southern zone of influence of the tropical monsoon and thus has always been highly sensitive to changes in monsoon dynamics over time. How these climatic changes have affected the colonisation and occupation of Australia is an important research theme in Australian archaeology. This paper illustrates the contribution and challenges of micromorphology in deciphering palaeoenvironmental and anthropogenic markers in a still largely unexplored Australian context. Micromorphological analysis of two archaeological sequences in the Napier Range (Carpenters Gap 1 and 3) provides a complementary and comprehensive reconstruction of the human-climate history in this area spanning nearly 50,000 years of Australian human presence. The results demonstrate an opportunistic use of sites by people through time, surprisingly independent of local climatic variation, suggesting highly flexible subsistence strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geospatial landscape connectivity modeling techniques are widely used in archaeological studies of past human movement patterns and landscape interactions. Recent advancements in the development of omnidirectional modeling approaches present new avenues for research design and require introduction into the field. In this paper, we present a novel adaptation of a point-based omnidirectional model design that we use to advance understandings of early colonial expansion (ca. 1600–1750 CE) into a social and ecological frontier landscape in the Northeastern United States, the Great Bay Estuary. We build case-specific resistance surfaces and use Circuitscape modeling to simulate the outward dispersal of settler colonists from the landscape's central water bodies while accounting for the influences of both water-based and overland travel, as well as the availability of specific natural resources. The outcome of the simulation performs well when tested statistically against the archaeological record and the value of multivariate model parameterization is highlighted both quantitatively and qualitatively. This case study offers a framework others could use to advance their own contextually-informed modeling of past human dispersal and landscape interactions. • Omnidirectional geospatial modeling methods are needed in archaeology. • We present a point-based circuitscape model of colonial dispersal in New England. • Input resistance surfaces consider navigable waters, overland travel, and wetlands. • Model performance is tested against the archaeological record with success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skeletal remains of two equid species, Equus caballus (horse) and Equus asinus (donkey), have been found in archaeological contexts throughout Iberia since the Palaeolithic and Chalcolithic periods, respectively. These two species play different economic and cultural roles, and therefore it is important to be able to distinguish between the two species to better understand their relative importance in the past human societies. The most reliable morphological features for distinguishing between the two domesticated equids are based on cranial measurements and tooth enamel folds, leading to only a small percentage of archaeological remains that can be identified to species. Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis can be used to reliably distinguish the two equids, but it can be cost prohibitive to apply to large assemblages, and aDNA preservation of non-cranial elements is often low. Collagen peptide mass fingerprinting by matrix-assisted laser desorption time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, also known as zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS), is a minimally destructive and cost-effective alternative to aDNA analysis for taxonomic determination. However, current ZooMS markers lack resolution below the genus level Equus. In this paper, we report a novel ZooMS peptide marker that reliably distinguishes between horses and donkeys using the enzyme chymotrypsin. We apply this peptide marker to taxonomically identify bones from the Iberian Peninsula ranging from the Iron Age to the Late Modern Period. The peptide biomarker has the potential to facilitate the collection of morphological data for zooarchaeological studies of equids in Iberia and throughout Eurasia and Africa. • Novel ZooMS biomarker discriminates between horses and donkeys. • Novel biomarker provided species level identification for archaeological samples identified only to Equus. • The enzyme, chymotrypsin, reliably provides unique peptide markers for ZooMS analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the function of quartzite pounding tools from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) using microscopic and use wear spatial distribution analysis. A selection of pounding tools from several Bed I and II assemblages excavated by Mary Leakey (1971) were studied under low magnification (<100×), and the microscopic traces developed on their surfaces are described. Experimental data and results obtained from analysis of the archaeological material are compared in order to assess activities in which pounding tools could have been involved. Results show that experimental anvils used for meat processing, nut cracking and/or bone breaking have similar wear patterns as those observed on archaeological percussive artefacts. This is the first time that a microscopic analysis is applied to Early Stone Age pounding artefacts from Olduvai Beds I and II, and this paper highlights the importance that percussive activities played during the Early Pleistocene, suggesting a wider range of activities in addition to knapping and butchering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prompted by the results of a series of recently published simulation models, there is an increasing tendency for archaeologists to invoke demographic variables as explanations for changes in the sophistication or complexity of material culture. Whilst these models are undoubtedly valuable, this paper draws attention to persistent failings in the interpretation and application of these models by archaeologists. Despite having quite different effects, variables such as population size and population density are often used interchangeably; and whilst increasing mobility has an effect broadly equivalent to that of increasing population density, it is rarely given sufficient weight in archaeological explanations of cultural change. The analyses reported here develop a series of new simulations based on the ideal gas model, allowing for an explicit prediction of the encounter rate – the variable for which population density and mobility are proxies, and which ultimately governs the rate of cultural transmission. This model supports the predictions of earlier studies on the effects of population density and mobility, but suggests that population size will have no effect on rates of cultural transmission. These simulations are coupled with analyses that demonstrate a reciprocal correlation between population density and mobility in a large hunter-gatherer dataset. Given this correlation, it is argued that archaeological inferences about cultural transmission based on just one of these variables are unlikely to be valid. These findings are discussed in the context of previous research, and it is suggested that future studies would gain greater explanatory power by focusing explicitly on the social network structures likely to have characterised a particular archaeological population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North Caucasus region is rich in early Bronze Age sites, with burials yielding many artifacts, including those from the Chekon, Natukhaevskaya, Katusvina-Krivitsa kurgan groups (at Krasnodar Krai, Russia) and Klady kurgan (near Novosvobodnaya Village, Republic of Adygea, Russia). According to the mainstream archaeological hypothesis, these sites belong to the Maikop culture (3700–3000 years BC), with Novosvobodnaya communities representing an offshoot of Maikop ancestry. However, due to specific differences in Novosvobodnaya artifacts, the Maikop and Novosvobodnaya assemblages could represent two synchronous archaeological cultures living in almost sympatry but showing independent ancestry, from the Near East and Europe respectively. Here, we used target-enrichment together with high-throughput sequencing to characterize the complete mitochondrial sequence of three Maikop and three Novosvobodnaya individuals. We identified T2b, N1b1 and V7 haplogroups, all widely spread in Neolithic Europe. In addition, we identified the Paleolithic Eurasian U8b1a2 and M52 haplogroups, which are frequent in modern South Asia, particularly in modern India. Our data provide a deeper understanding of the diversity of Early Bronze Age North Caucasus communities and hypotheses of its origin. Analyzing non-human sequencing reads for microbial content, we found that one individual from the Klady kurgan was infected by the pathogen Brucella abortus that is responsible for zoonotic infections from cattle to humans. This finding is in agreement with Maikop/Novosvobodnaya livestock groups, mostly consisting of domestic pigs and cattle. This paper represents a first mitochondrial genome analysis of Maikop/Novosvobodnaya culture as well as the earliest brucellosis case in archaeological humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes and tests the idea that a major change in technology associated with the grinding of cereals may account for changes in asymmetry in the upper arms of women in the Neolithic through Iron Age across a large area of Europe. It has been observed that bilateral asymmetry in humeral strength (i.e., polar section modulus) decreased to near zero in early agricultural females, but increased again during the Iron Age. These changes in asymmetry in females have been interpreted as the direct consequence of the adoption of the saddle quern at the start of the Neolithic and its subsequent replacement by the rotary quern in the Iron Age. To test the impact of these alternative cereal grinding methods, we tested the efficiency of saddle and rotary quern grinding with 16 female volunteers and the effect of grinding on muscle activity of the upper limb with 20 female volunteers. We used electromyography to measure muscle activity in the pectoralis , deltoideus , infraspinatus and triceps muscles and adjusted muscle activity for efficiency and muscle size. Saddle quern grinding was 4.3 times less efficient than rotary quern grinding and produced a significantly higher amount of coarse- and middle-grained flour but a significantly lower amount of very fine grained flour than rotary quern grinding. Saddle quern grinding showed symmetrical muscle activity in all four studied muscles, whereas rotary quern grinding yielded consistent directional asymmetry in a majority of muscles even during bimanual rotation. Saddle quern grinding required about twice as much muscle activity per kg of grain when adjusted for muscle size than rotary quern grinding. Our results support the view that saddle quern grinding may have played a major role in the decrease in directional asymmetry in humeral strength in early agricultural females and that the adoption of the rotary quern during the Iron Age may have increased humeral directional asymmetry mainly because of increased asymmetrical loading and the reduced time needed for grinding in favor of other manipulative tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors present an early evidence for the use of complex fishing techniques for obtaining variable fish resources in prehistoric south-east Europe as recovered at the Neolithic site of Vinča – Belo Brdo in Serbia. In particular, a group of bone artefacts have been analysed through the application of an integrated approach combining technological, use-wear, and residue analyses as well as the comparisons with ethnographic artefacts. The results of the functional analysis indicate that these artefacts were parts of lure hooks, i.e. composite hooks, probably used to catch large predatory fish. On methodological grounds, the discussion proposed in this paper could be relevant for other case studies worldwide where one finds prehistoric communities with evidence of fishing activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]