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Bark cloth (‘tapa/kapa’) is a fabric made from beaten plant fibres. In the Pacific tapa made of paper mulberry has been of great cultural importance and its use is associated with both utilitarian and ceremonial contexts. In the 19th century, traditional bark cloth was largely replaced by Western cloth. On some islands, tapa making was banished with the arrival of missionaries and Christianization. This is the case for the Gambier Islands in French Polynesia. Only a few tapa pieces from this island group survive and are held in Museum collections. In this work, we present results of the analysis of a bark cloth bundle discovered at the Te Ana o te Tetea cave on Agakauitai in the Gambier Archipelago. The bundle was made up of large and small strips of thin tapa, with some watermarks left by the beaters. Associated with the tapa, were a piece of wood and cordage. A few of the bark cloth samples showed symmetrical black lines along some of the folds. This paper presents the results of a number of analyses performed on the bark cloth bundle from this island with the aim of determining its age, if the decorations were man-made and the plant species used for its manufacture. Samples were dated by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and the designs were analyzed by portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscopy - Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) for elemental characterization. Raman spectroscopy was also performed in order to assess the chemical nature of pigments. These analyses allow us to conclude that the finds date to the pre-European contact period for this island group and that these lines can be attributed to man-made designs. In addition, genetic analysis of the ribosomal region were performed to identify the species used in its manufacture, which indicate that the plant used to make the tapa cloth was Broussonetia papyrifera or paper mulberry. The availability of new genetic sequencing techniques allow for new and very sensitive analyses of archaeological material that require careful handling from the beginning in order to avoid sample contamination.

Three sediment cores and five test-pits at Anaura Bay, New Zealand were examined for evidence of Maori horticulture, and compared with descriptions of this site made in 1769 by Captain Cook's Endeavour expedition. The pits revealed soils modified for gardening and plant microfossil analysis (pollen, phytoliths and starch) identified four introduced prehistoric cultigens, all featured in the descriptions. These comprise three starch field crops: taro (Colocasia esculenta), common yam (Dioscorea alata) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and an orchard-based crop: paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera). This activity, occurring on steep hills and a recently uplifted surface, was accompanied by deforestation and consequently an extremely accelerated erosion rate. In one of the cores, maize (Zea mays) pollen and cf. potato (Solanum tuberosum) starch possibly older than other evidence of European settlement may confirm early adoption and spread by Maori of these European-introduced crops.

Flemish 15–17th century tapestries are among the most precious testimonies of European cultural heritage. Even in their deteriorated condition, they are still highly valued and exhibited in many museums all over the world. The present state of degradation evidenced by visual assessment in conservation practice, and confirmed with macro-scaled tensile strength tests, reveals the vulnerability of the wool and silk fibres to light exposure. The focus of this study is in the development of a micro-destructive tool that can be applied to provide information about protein breakdown at an early stage, long before fibre deterioration becomes visible. High performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection is a very efficient technique to determine the amino acid composition of proteins at sub-microgram level. In the first part of the study, the technique is evaluated for its efficiency in the detection of oxidative fibre damage at molecular level. The pathway for initial oxidative degradation of textile proteins is studied using a set of new and accelerated aged wool and silk reference samples. Characteristic alterations in amino acid composition of both proteins are detected and sensitive markers for the monitoring of oxidative deterioration of keratin and fibroin determined and validated on a large set of dyed reference samples. Correlation between the developed early warning markers and the physical degradation of the fibres is demonstrated. In the second part of the study, the developed early warning markers are applied to monitor the state of oxidative degradation of a large dataset of historical wool and silk samples from 15–17th century Flemish tapestries in Belgian, Spanish and British collections, allowing condition evaluation of the prestigious historical collections. The developed early warning system is found to be a powerful, micro-destructive tool for conservators and restorers to evaluate the condition of the tapestry or textile collection and to prioritise the conservation or restoration treatment of the most fragile pieces of the collection.

Demographic profiling of archaeological assemblages offers a window into the shifting exploitation strategies practiced by ancient societies. High resolution sex-specific age profiles, in particular, have yielded new insights into the evolution of early management practices taken during the initial stages of animal domestication (Zeder, 2001). This paper is the third in a series seeking to develop a method for constructing demographic profiles for Sus scrofa — one of the earliest major livestock species noteworthy for being independently domesticated in both Southwest and East Asia. The first paper in this series (Lemoine et al., 2014) presented a new system for constructing high resolution age profiles using patterns of dental eruption and wear. The second (Zeder et al., 2015) presented a new method for computing high resolution age profiles based on long bone fusion. Both papers used a reference assemblage of modern Eurasian wild boar for developing these new aging schemes, which were then applied to the large assemblage of S. scrofa remains from the Early Holocene age site of Hallan Cemi (c. 11,600 cal. BP) in southeastern Anatolia — an assemblage that previous researchers claimed provided evidence for early steps toward management (Redding, 2005). Here we focus on a subset of this modern reference collection consisting of 34 wild boar skeletons from Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. We employ a Logarithm Size Index scaling (LSI) technique to examine the effect of factors such as age, locality, and, sex on body size in modern wild boar. We find that even though both age and locality have an impact on body size, LSI values derived from select measurements of various different post-cranial elements can be used to classify individual osteological specimens as belonging to immature animals, and, for animals older than about eight months of age, as female or male. We test the reliability of these classifications by comparing the known demographic profiles of the modern reference population against those derived from the LSI classifications. Finally, we apply this new method to the Hallan Cemi assemblage and propose a method for adjusting LSI values to account for temporal size differences encountered between the modern and ancient populations. We also present methods for assessing the reliability of these classifications in the ancient population. We conclude by offering guidelines for the application of this new method to other archaeological assemblages of S. scrofa and other ungulate species that demonstrate strong degrees of sexual dimorphism.

The identification of human butchery-signatures on fauna from Lower Palaeolithic sites is well documented and readily identifiable. Such bone surface modifications have the potential to provide not only information about past hominin meat-procurement behaviour but address the wider issue of competition for resources with other carnivore species. To understand and discuss these broader issues both hominin and natural bone surface modifications must be understood and contextualised within a site-specific spatial and temporal framework. This paper presents new results from faunal analysis at two key British Lower Palaeolithic localities: Boxgrove and Swanscombe. It illustrates that different depositional environments and excavation histories have resulted in different scales and resolutions of available data and hence in varying interpretive potentials. At Swanscombe the archaeological record has been disturbed by both fluvial activity and excavation history providing a coarser-grained record of anthropogenic behaviour than previously acknowledged. Conversely, at Boxgrove, a finer-grained, higher resolution record of human behaviours has been preserved; this, combined with both an extensive and intensive excavation strategy, has allowed for a broader discussion of hominin landscape use, resource competition and meat-procurement behaviour. This paper highlights that assessing the specific depositional environment at each site is crucial to understanding Palaeolithic faunal assemblage formation and, consequently, the available data-resolution and behavioural interpretation.

This paper describes the camel bones discovered in two Late Roman contexts from Arlon (Belgium). The morphological and metrical analyses identify the animal as a dromedary. The goal of this paper is also to provide an inventory of all camel finds published for the northern provinces of the Roman Empire. Based on a review of twenty-two archaeological sites with camel bones, it is shown that both the dromedary and Bactrian camel were imported to the northern Roman provinces and that the camels were present throughout the whole Roman period. This study also demonstrates that the camel discoveries cannot be linked exclusively with military contexts, as traditionally postulated. Indeed, several finds derive from civilian settlements (villas and cities). All sites with camel remains are located close to roads and are widespread throughout the Roman road network. It is suggested that the camels imported to the northern provinces might have been originally pack animals linked with both military and civilian traffic.

This paper investigates how to gain quantitative comparability of macroscopic plant remains by estimating sample sizes representative to each population. First, this study reviews taphonomic pathways of plant remains to clarify how far we can draw cultural implications from the retrieved remains. The target population is defined here as the deposited assemblage, that is, plants that were deposited into the soil matrix. Through time, the deposited assemblage becomes reduced to the fossil assemblage, which is subject to being sampled (sampled population). The relation between the sampled population and samples is a statistical issue. A systematic recovery and a well-designed sampling strategy can help maintaining the same degree of representativeness of samples to the sampled population. The paper thus focuses on a statistical measure that estimates the sample sizes, based on a relative error and a confidence level of a small number of pilot samples. Data for the test is the plant remains recovered from the Nam River sites in south-central Korea, dating to the Early and Middle Mumun periods (3400–2400 BP). This measure ensures that quantitative differences between the plant remains in the two samples were due to real differences between the populations from which they were drawn rather than due only to variation within a single population. Thus this method strengthens cultural interpretations on quantitative differences in plant remains.

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) has been documented on the Iberian Peninsula throughout the Middle and Upper Pleistocene in archaeological and palaeontological contexts. However, this is an uncommon species among the Iberian quaternary faunae as a whole. This paper focuses on the remains of the genus Cuon recovered in three different sites of the Iberian Mediterranean region and their morphological and osteometrical study. By comparing these with fourteen complete skeletons of Canis lupus, as well as with other remains of C. alpinus, we intend to highlight some anatomical and metrical differences between Cuon and Canis that, added to those already published, could be a functional base-line for the identification of this genus. The identification of this species is complex, especially in archaeological contexts, and in some cases the dhole has been identified as Canis or Canidae. Furthermore, this paper explores the chronology of the presence of the dhole in the Iberian Peninsula and the different contexts where these animals have been recovered from.

We explore the standards of research and reporting needed to justify the destructive analysis of archaeological human bone for biomolecular studies of ancient tuberculosis (TB). Acceptable standards in osteological interpretation have been met in some biomolecular papers, but there are also cases where insufficient care has been taken in distinguishing between pathognomonic lesions and those that are ‘consistent with’ a diagnosis of TB. Some biomolecular studies have failed to recognize that archaeological bones might be contaminated with environmental mycobacteria whose DNA could give rise to false positives in polymerase chain reactions directed at members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. The difficulties of applying spoligotyping to ancient DNA have also been underestimated and conclusions drawn from such analyses are often weakly supported. Assumptions that mycobacterial DNA preserves better than human DNA, and that contamination with modern DNA is less of a problem, has led in some cases to a laxity in research standards with insufficient attention paid to the need to authenticate ancient DNA results. We illustrate our concerns by reference to a recent paper reporting biomolecular detection of ancient TB DNA in skeletons from the eastern Mediterranean Neolithic settlement of Atlit-Yam. We are unconvinced that the skeletal evidence presented in this paper gives sufficient indication of TB to warrant destructive analysis, and we are concerned that during the biomolecular part of the project inadequate attention was paid to the possibility that results might be due to laboratory cross-contamination or to amplification of environmental mycobacterial DNA present in the bones.

The fruit (pods) of Prosopis (Fabaceae) are frequently recovered from pre-Hispanic Argentinian archaeological sites, suggesting that this genus was of importance in ancient economies in this region. Yet it is only recently that archaeobotanists have begun to carry out systematic research into this genus. Therefore many questions remain to be addressed concerning the food value of Prosopis fruit, and its potential contribution. This paper examines starch from the pods of two species, Prosopis flexuosa and Prosopis chilensis, for the purposes of describing and classifying their morphological features and biometrical parameters. Pods of both species were gathered from two extremes (northern and southern) of the Hualfin Valley, Catamarca, Argentina. Starch abundance is estimated and compared with that of Zea mays, an economically important plant with high concentrations of starch. This paper reveals that Prosopis pods contain very low amounts of starch compared to starch-rich edible species. Despite this, the recovery of Prosopis starch grains can be successfully used to assess archaeological tool uses. Prosopis starch grains were found to be highly variable in shape. Grain size ranged between 10 and 20 μm. Granule irregularity and the high birefringence under polarized light are two of the most important diagnostic features. No significant statistical differences were found in the structure (morphology, size and hilum) of the starch of the same species from both localities. Finally, the implications for the role of this plant in past societies are discussed.

The analysis of cords recovered in the archaeological sites Pena de las Trampas 1.1, c. 8400 years BP, and Inca Cueva 7, c. 4080–4030 years BP, allowed us to discuss the hypothesis that vascular bundles of palm leaves from distant sources were used in the Northern and Southern Puna during the Holocene in different archaeological sites. In this paper we contribute data from two sites. The first is situated at the locality of Antofagasta de la Sierra, Catamarca, Southern Argentinean Puna; the other at the Quebrada de Inca Cueva, Jujuy, Northern Argentinean Puna. The goals in this paper were to identify the raw materials used in making cords, the differences in cord fabrication between the two samples and the temporal and spatial distribution of Puna data with reference to the palm species habitat.

In our previous paper—Calcite crystals inside archaeological plant tissue (J. Archaeol. Sci. 27 (2000) 981–985), we reported the presence of mineral crystals in archaeological samples of cultivated plants founded in rock-shelters used by pre-historical Brazilian human populations. In this paper, we respond to some of the questions and comments raised about our data and conclusions, presented in comments from M.G. Canti and from J.E. Brochier and M. Thinon.

When deciding which parts of a prey animal to transport home, hunters may be more or less selective. In our vocabulary, unselective hunters are those who usually bring home most of the carcass; selective hunters are those who usually abandon all but the choicest (and/or lightest) parts. This paper uses the abcml statistical method to develop a means of estimating transport selectivity from the frequencies of skeletal parts in a faunal assemblage. It then applies the method to artiodactyl data from the Emeryville Shellmound in order to test the local depression and distant patch use hypothesis. This hypothesis predicts that selectivity should decline during the early part of the Emeryville sequence and rise during the later part. The initial analysis did reveal such a pattern, but this pattern disappeared when samples were pooled in order to produce acceptably narrow confidence intervals. Although this result weakens the hypothesis, it does not firmly refute it, because the model fits the data imperfectly in the critical middle portion of the sequence. Abcml also provides estimates of the intensity of attrition, which indicate that attrition was most severe in early strata and least severe in later ones. Substantial attrition (50% of bones surviving) is indicated even from samples that show no indication of attrition using conventional methods. These conclusions are based on assumptions about the processes of transport and attrition that are more reliable in qualitative outline than in quantitative detail. Consequently, the paper's qualitative conclusions are more trustworthy than its quantitative estimates.

This paper presents a standardized series of replicable and comparable density assays, based on the technique of photon densitometry (or absorptiometry), for two native South American camelid taxa, the domesticated llama ( Lama glama ) and alpaca ( L. pacos ). Two sets of volume density (VD) measures (in g/cm 3 ) are provided: (1) “shape-adjusted” volume density (VD SA ) which computes cross-sectional area of each scan site based upon computerized analysis of scanned digital images; and (2) standard volume density (VD LD/BT ) which norms cross-sectional area to a block form. Derived value sets are compared with each other, between camelid specimens and with published figures for camelid, deer and bison skeletal elements. Patterns of structural bone densities between South American camelids and other artiodactyls might be attributed to unique anatomical expressions of locomotor and dietary adaptations. The density data are combined with derived meat utility indices to explore the archaeological correlates associated with the production, distribution and consumption of ch'arki , a native Andean dried meat product. The paper examines the validity of an Andean charqui effect ( sensu Miller, 1979, An introduction to the ethnoarchaeology of the Andean Camelids . Ph.D. Thesis, University of California at Berkeley), based on the well-known schlepp effect , by comparing hypothetical ch'arki and chalona models of meat preservation. Faunal data from the prehistoric Peruvian site of Chavin de Huantar do not support the consumption of imported ch'arki , but could implicate its local production. The data could also support the consumption of imported chalona , or the importation of live camelids which were subsequently slaughtered, locally produced into chalona and consumed. In both cases, the data leave open the possibility that Chavin may have been a production centre for either ch'arki or chalona ; however, acceptance of the differing interpretations requires some potentially problematic assumptions.

Previous papers have detailed the nature and optics of the microscopic faecal spherulites found at various archaeological sites in the last 15 years. Early indications gained about the spherulite-producing species, the quantities produced and the environmental controls have subsequently been analysed in more detail, mostly under U.K. conditions. This paper presents the results of those experiments as well as a limited study of taphonomic factors leading to the spherulites’ preservation or destruction in the stratigraphic record. Spherulites are initially deposited in the small intestine of many animals, probably as a by-product of the neutralization of acid chyme from the stomach or abomasum. Numbers are highest in ruminant herbivores, low in omnivores and low-to-absent in carnivores. No spherulites have been found in the caecal digesting herbivores. They reach maximum abundance in dung from animals grazing or rooting on alkaline soils (pH >7) and are very low-to-absent when the soil is below pH 6. Spherulite preservation is due to a complex of factors, but dissolution occurs rapidly under conditions of high throughflow where the host stratigraphy is below pH 7·7.

In a recent paper, Schmitt and Juell argued that corroded, thinned, and polished bones may be diagnostic of carnivore scatological bone. This paper examines leporid and bird bones recovered from 20 golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) pellets, and concludes that these same taphonomic traces are commonly present on bones regurgitated by this diurnal raptor. As a result, much additional research will be required before carnivore scatological bone can be uneqivocally distinguished from bones cast by golden eagles.

Proteins extracted from both bones and teeth found in archaeological contexts are used for radiocarbon dating, amino acid racemization age at death determinations, and genetic and dietary studies. The changes induced in these proteins as a result of decomposition by known micro-organisms have been little studied. The decomposition pathways of these proteins, and indeed the organisms involved, have not been comprehensively defined. This paper attempts to suggest which types of micro-organisms are likely to be involved in this decomposition and outlines their characteristics. This paper also describes the use of bone and tooth, with their associated soils, from various archaeological contexts, as source material for the isolation of fungi and bacteria by enrichment culture at 10°C. Samples from various soil types and archaeological periods were included in the trial. Bacterial and fungal isolates that tested positive for a collagenase were identified. Decomposition studies, which continue, are outlined.

As modern humans grapple with the repercussions of their extensive environmental impacts, archaeologists are increasingly looking toward the past to understand the nature and extent of prehistoric human impact on the environment. Many researchers rely heavily on archaeological correlates of resource intensification as a proxy measures of resource depletion, a profound and often catastrophic human impact. However, the traditional conceptualization of the archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification disregards a large amount of species-specific variation. This paper presents archaeomalacological data from Santa Cruz Island, California. The shell midden deposits CA-SCRI-480 contain a high density of Tivela stultorum (Pismo clam). Statistical analysis of the shellfish assemblage reveals significant variation in both the size and quantity of Pismo clam that people collected through time. This paper investigates this unique patterning with due consideration of the natural ecology and life history of the species and illustrates species-specific deviation from the traditional archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification. Increased collaboration with ecologists and biologists can help refine models of intensification when necessary in order create more sophisticated understanding of prehistoric human–resource interactions.

The practice of intentional cranial modification was known in Eurasia since the Bronze Age. It intensified during the Migration Period (4th – 7th c AD) coinciding with the arrival of Huns in the Carpathian basin. The resurgence in the practice has been attributed to the Huns even in regions removed from the Huns in geography and time. As a highly visual symbol, cranial modification clearly played an important role in negotiating social identity. The purpose of this paper is to compare styles of modification in regions across Eurasia to determine the role of cranial modification in conveying different identities. Three-dimensional landmark coordinates were used in a geometric morphometric analysis to compare the shape of 14 non-modified recent crania, 23 modified crania from The Republic of Georgia, 17 from Hungary, 13 from Germany, two from The Czech Republic, one from Austria and one from Crimea. A Generalized Procrustes Analysis was used to standardize size differences and reveal shape differences. Results from principal components and discriminant analysis reveal significant differences in the style and shape of cranial modification among the recent non-modified crania and modified crania from Georgia, Hungary and Germany. A review of the tomb types, burial assemblages and historical records brings up a complex pattern of multiple social groups involved in the practice of cranial modification in each region. In Hungary the style of modification was homogeneous and the practice was local in origin. In Georgia and Germany individuals with modified crania were migrant and did not perpetuate the practice in their new homeland. We suggest that the practice was re-popularized by the Huns during the Migration Period as a means to maintain central control using a visual form of social identity. This was emulated by other nomadic groups acknowledging the importance of the practice for conveying social identity at boundaries.

The middle Huai River valley, located in the climatic, cultural and agricultural transitional zone in the central-eastern China during the Neolithic, occupies an important position in the study of the origins, development and spread of rice and millet farming in China. Previous studies indicate that rice agriculture has extended to the middle Huai River valley since 8.5 ka BP, and rice domestication was in the early stage between 8.5 and 7.5 ka BP, while the earliest evidence of millet remains discovered in this region was as late as ca. 5.0 ka BP. However, the process of rice domestication after 7.5 ka BP in this region, and when and where foxtail millet and broomcorn millet first extended respectively into this valley and interplayed with rice during the Neolithic period are still unknown. In this study, phytolith analysis of the soil samples from the Shuangdun site during the archaeological excavation, which is a representative site of the Shuangdun Culture in the middle Huai River valley dating back to 7.3–6.8 ka BP, reveals evidence of crops in the middle Huai River valley, China. Our results show that rice with japonica characteristics was the dominant crop at the Shuangdun site, which had a higher domestication rate than that at the Shunshanji site during 8.5–7.5 ka BP in terms of the morphological and morphometric analyses of rice bulliform and double-peaked glume cells, while broomcorn millet only occupied a small proportion of the total amount based on analysis of the quantity and ubiquity of phytoliths. Our data extend the record of broomcorn millet use in the middle Huai River valley by nearly 2000 years. The analysis in this paper not only provides significant evidence for illustrating the transformation of crop structure and the domestication process of rice in the middle Huai River valley, but also brings some clues for mapping the spatiotemporal route for the spread of rice and millets in central-eastern China during the Neolithic.

International audience; The Mexican Hairless dog, or Xoloitzcuintle, is a breed characterised by a sparse hair coat and a severe oligodontia. This phenotype is a consequence of Canine Ectodermal Dysplasia (CED) caused by a mutation on the FoxI3 autosomal gene. First accounts of hairless dogs in Mexico are dated to the 16th century CE, according to the historical record, but pre-Hispanic dog skeletons presenting missing and abnormally shaped teeth have been interpreted as earlier evidence of hairless dogs. However, several questions remain unanswered regarding the timing of apparition of this phenotype and its relationship with modern hairless breeds. In this paper, we review the morphological characteristics of potential hairless dogs and we apply ancient mitochondrial DNA analyses along with radiocarbon dating to eight archaeological dog mandibles from Tizayuca, Basin of Mexico, presenting anomalies that could be attributed to a CED. The archaeological dogs were dated between 1620 and 370 years BP. Among these eight individuals, we identify four different mitochondrial haplotypes including two novel haplotypes. The dogs from the Basin of Mexico display a very high genetic diversity and continuity from the Classic to the Postclassic. However, our attempt at amplifying the FoxI3 mutation was unsuccessful. Finally, we show that some haplotypes are present in both archaeological dogs and modern hairless breeds, perhaps reflecting their maternal ancestry. © 2018

Demographic profiling of a population of sheep buried in toto in the Ptolemaic-Early Roman animal necropolis at Syene/Aswan (Upper Egypt) revealed significantly higher age estimates based on tooth eruption and wear than those based on epiphyseal fusion. Since located in an arid landscape with occasionally heavy dust loads, one plausible assumption would be that at Syene, dental abrasion may have been exceptionally intense. Until now, however, no approach exists to determine the intrinsic rate of tooth wear in archaeological sheep specimens and its effects on demographic profiles. Using occlusal wear patterns observed in mandibular dental rows of large modern sheep populations of known age, we developed a novel method to determine the rate of tooth wear of sheep and estimate the corresponding age at death of the animals. To facilitate such time-consuming analysis, we then developed an IT-tool termed WoTiS (Wear of Teeth in Sheep) that has been coded in R. The paper outlines the principles underlying our approach and guides the reader through our method by way of examples. Discussion focuses on the application of our approach to sheep populations from Celtic Manching (southern Germany) and Late Dynastic-Mamluk Syene (Upper Egypt). Our results underscore the necessity of evaluating the rate of tooth wear in sheep in order to reach valid statements regarding the species’ mode of exploitation in ancient cultures.

Long-standing arguments regarding the early cultural transition, the domestication of plants and the impacts of climate change on past Egyptian societies remain contentious. In this paper, we demonstrate that grazing started at our study site, Kom El-Khilgan in the NE Nile Delta, ca. 7000 years ago, which was several hundred years prior to crop farming. We examined pollen-spores and non-pollen palynomorphs (NPP) in a 1-m-deep sediment profile (KH-1) in the study site, defined archaeologically as the Pre-Dynastic (>5.9 ka) in age. Our results show that before ca. 7.0 ka, major floods prevailed in the Nile Delta, as highly-concentrated Podocarpus and Polypodiaceae were transported from the East African highlands and Cyperaceae of higher Nile flow indication. This humid phase was succeeded by a brief period of drying climate ca. 7.0–6.6 ka, allowing the entry of the first settlers who commenced grazing their animals on previously inundated wetlands. This change is indicated by the remarkable increase in fungal spores (Cercophora, Sordaria, Coniochaeta cf. Ligniaria) from accumulations of animal dung. At ca. 6.6 ka, the abrupt appearance of domesticated cereal pollen (Poaceae >35 μm) and cereal grass pathogens (Pericornia and Sorosporium) suggests an amelioration of the climate that allowed the introduction of cereal crops and related water management activities. Grazing and cropping co-existed for the remainder of the record during the time when there occurred a mega-tendency of climate drying towards recent time. A drought event recognized ca. 4.2 ka led to the collapse of the Old Kingdom.

Archaeological eggshell is a commonly recorded, yet underutilized material for understanding human-environment interaction in the past. In addition to the use of archaeological eggshell as a paleoenvironmental proxy, archaeologists have innovated important new approaches to the study of archaeological avian eggshell, including the application of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the characterization of eggshell microstructures. These studies have demonstrated the importance of eggshell for understanding how ancient communities exploited and interacted with avifauna. In this paper, we build on these methodological advances by testing new approaches to image avian eggshell and characterizing complex eggshell surface microstructures. We demonstrate the utility of capturing high-resolution 3-dimensional (3D) eggshell surfaces using advanced imaging modalities (optical profilometry, scanning electron microscopy, digital microscopy, computed tomography), to model changes in eggshell microstructures that are correlated with ontogeny. Using the Common Ostrich (Struthio camelus) as our model system, we introduce a statistical modeling approach to predict the ontogenetic age of ratite eggshell using roughness measurements of 3D features. Successful prediction of ontogenetic age has great potential to reveal archaeological patterns of human exploitation of avian eggs. These findings further illustrate the importance of archaeological eggshell for investigating human-environment interactions, emphasizing the need for archaeologists to use field methods (hand/trowel excavation and fine mesh screen) that facilitate eggshell recovery.

Zooarchaeologists have relied upon various approaches to study the impacts of harvest pressure and environmental change on ungulate populations, such as analysis of prey mortality patterns and morphometrics. Analysis of ancient DNA from ungulate bones and bone fragments from archaeological sites provides an additional means for studying prey population dynamics related to environmental change and human ecology over time. In this paper, we study the population history of the largest game animal in northwest Patagonia, the guanaco (Lama guanicoe). Our study relies on the use of Bayesian Skyline Plots to determine shifts in estimated guanaco population size based on analysis of ancient mitochondrial DNA. Our results indicate that hunting by humans in addition to increases in aridity during the late Holocene led to a decline in the guanaco population in the region, which is in contrast to the harvest and environmental history in other parts of Patagonia (south of our study area). Using a weight of evidence approach that includes proxies of environmental change, human population dynamics, exploitation of guanacos, and estimates of guanaco population size, we argue that the late Holocene shift in guanaco population size was a driving factor in subsistence and settlement change related to resource intensification during the late Holocene in northwest Patagonia.

In recent years several studies have attempted to understand the use of caffeinated beverages in North America before the coming of Europeans using absorbed residues. These studies have focused on the two key plant sources of caffeine in North America: Theobroma cacao (cacao) and Ilex vomitoria (yaupon holly). The authors initiated a study to explore the possibility that one or both plants were used at the Mississippian period (900–1600 CE) center of Etowah in northern Georgia. In the process, a series of problems with methodologies in use were revealed. Key among those were limitations on the methods used to identify ancient caffeinated beverage residues, distinguish them from modern contamination, and differentiate residues made by each plant. In this paper we explore what our data from the Etowah site reveal about methodologies currently in use and make suggestions for future studies of residues created by caffeinated beverages in North America.

International audience; This paper presents the potential of 5β-stanols and bile acids to act as fecal source biomarkers in order to identify and characterize past agropastoral activities in archaeological and natural archives. First of all, a molecular inventory of 5β-stanols and bile acids was made on fresh fecal human and domestic animal samples, using the same methodology to define the specificity of these molecular biomarkers. The selected species were cow, horse, pig and sheep as they are the major domestic species present in European archaeological sites. To our knowledge, our work constitutes the first report on fecal biomarkers in sheep feces. Bile acids can distinguish diet regime and species having the same diet with greater specificity than 5β-stanols. Fresh human fecal material and historical/archaeological fecal material were analyzed to assess their stability through time by calculating the coprostanol/epi-coprostanol (Cp/epi-Cp) and deoxycholic acid/cholic acid (DOC/C) ratios. Results show that bile acids are more resistant to diagenesis than 5β-stanols, at least on a 700-year time scale. Human and domestic animal fecal molecular imprints were then compared to the molecular content of 65 samples retrieved from archaeological sites, soils and lacustrine sediments to test their ability to trace past land-use dynamics. This study is the first to combine bile acids and 5β-stanols to identify a source of fecal material in lacustrine sediments. The combination of sterols and bile acids can be used in a variety of natural archives and archaeological contexts to define the origin of fecal material, to specify land-use, and to reconstruct past pastoral practices at various spatio-temporal scales.

Archaeologists and historians have demonstrated that marine resource management, or mariculture, has been practiced by coastal peoples worldwide for thousands of years. Typically evidence for these practices is in the form of ethnohistoric accounts or associated infrastructure (e.g. clam gardens). This paper presents methods for inferring oyster mariculture by using proxy evidence from attributes of the shell itself. The methods are applied to archaeological shell from a Woodland Period site on Florida's Gulf Coast, where it appears that two techniques of mariculture, shelling and culling, were practiced during a period of intensive large-scale and sustained harvesting.

The paper presents and discusses the results of the first ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis of cyprinid remains recovered from the Mesolithic-Neolithic sites of Vlasac, Lepenski Vir and Padina in the Danube Gorges (North-Central Balkans). Cyprinids constitute a significant portion of the identified fish remains recovered from these sites, which is indicative of their dietary role, and their large pharyngeal teeth have been worn as garment appliques and associated with a great number of buried individuals. aDNA analysis (involving mitochondrial and nuclear markers) of pharyngeal bones with teeth corresponding to those used as appliques has determined that they originate from anadromous Rutilus frisii (vyrezub), previously unrecorded in the Middle and Lower Danube. At present, the species inhabits the Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins, but the only known populations in the Danube inhabit solely its upper reaches in Austria. The results of our study and the occurrence of R. frisii in the Danube Gorges further corroborate that its Upper Danube and Black Sea habitat had been connected in the past, i.e. that the species was entering the whole stretch of the river during its spawning migrations. Furthermore, precise taxonomic identification has important implications for a better understanding of fishing practices and their seasonal schedule in the Danube Gorges, and the distribution of cyprinid pharyngeal teeth ornaments in Europe during the Mesolithic.

The first evidence for the domestication of donkeys (Equus asinus) dates back to at least 6000-5000 BP in Northeast Africa, and their dispersion is attributed to the ancient Romans. Latin authors described donkeys as being particularly suitable for the transport of goods and farm work. In addition, they were also bred to produce prized hybrids, particularly mules, which were perfectly adapted to the long-distance transport of people and goods. However, although the historical sources extensively describe their economic importance, both donkey and hybrid remains are surprisingly scarce in the archaeological record. This apparent contradiction is probably due to the difficulties involved in correctly identifying their bones: relatively few bones displaying morphological and metrical criteria can be used for identification, so it is often based purely on bone size. The aim of this study, therefore, is to propose solutions to identify domestic equid bones using 3D geometric morphometrics on isolated and combinations of anatomical elements. A set of 3D coordinates were registered on the 18 main skull and limb bones of 111 modern reference specimens (i.e. 42 horses, 44 donkeys and 25 hybrids). In this paper, we present the classification rate obtained on this reference sample using the k-Nearest Neighbors algorithm. The application of this method on archaeological skeletons from Roman to modern sites is also presented. The percentage of correctly classified specimens was between 77% and 95% for all 18 bones, and higher than 80% for 10 of the fragmentation patterns we defined. Using a combination of several bones enabled us to increase the rate of correct reclassification to a maximum of 97%. The application to archaeological skeletons proved the ability of this method to identify domestic horses and donkeys from archaeological samples. Correspondingly, some bones, and especially combinations of bones, provided good rates to identify hybrids. This method has proved reliable in detecting the presence of donkeys and hybrids from the archaeological samples of equid bones, and should enrich our knowledge regarding their spread across Europe.

Plant resins, tars and organic fossil substances provide valuable insights into the ecological, environmental and cultural contexts of ancient societies. Their study offers evidence of past know-how, production systems, socio-economic networks and mobility. In this paper, we present new data from 16 sites located in the North-West Mediterranean that provide new insights into the exploitation of these substances for their adhesive and hydrophobic properties throughout the Neolithic (6000-2500 cal BCE). The substances investigated are discussed in the light of their molecular composition, their uses and manufacturing processes. Spatial analyses were also performed to elucidate raw material procurement strategies. This study considerably increases the body of data available from the Mediterranean and tells a diachronic story of adhesive production and use throughout the Neolithic, highlighting the variability and complexity of production systems and supply networks at different spatial scales. While most adhesive and hydrophobic substances were probably collected locally, birch bark tar was very likely transported across long distances to reach Mediterranean coastal sites. Birch bark tar exploitation intensified in South-Eastern France during the Middle Neolithic, while the Late Neolithic is characterised by a diversification of the substances employed and their range of uses: bitumen, birch bark tar (pure or mixed with Pinaceae resin, beeswax and possibly fat/oil) were important materials that were used for a variety of purposes. Pure Pinaceae exudates were exclusively employed for waterproofing pottery. We also highlight the standardisation of birch bark tar production for adhesive manufacture observed in Provence during the first part of the 4th millennium cal. BCE., The authors thank the French National Research Agency (ANR) for the funding of the project Exsudarch (2010-2014, M. Regert dir.) which allowed extensive diachronic interdisciplinary investigations on plant exudates and tars as well as researching the biogeography of plant raw materials. We are also grateful to the Academy 5 of the IDEXJEDI from UCA (Université Côte d’Azur), to the MSHS sud-est, to the CNRS-INEE and to the CEPAM for funding the research project ARCHEOPLANTES (2018-2020, M. Regert dir.). The results presented here were obtained during the PhD of Maxime Rageot, funded by the PACA Region, the CNRS and the Université Côte d’Azur; may they find here the expression of our sincere thanks. We are grateful to Nolan Ferar for proofreading the article. Finally, we would like to thank the two reviewers for their constructive suggestions which helped to improve the quality of this article.

Over the last thirty years, investigations in the Nachukui Formation (West Turkana, Kenya) have revealed the importance of the region for human evolution studies within an archaeological sequence spanning the period 3.3 million years (Ma) to 0.7 Ma. Despite the numerous sites discovered, little is known about pounding activities during this time period in the region. In this paper, we present an analysis of percussive tools from three West Turkana archaeological sites: Lokalalei 2C, Kokiselei 1 and Kokiselei 4, dated between 2.3 Ma and 1.76 Ma. Their chronological range allows us to conduct a diachronic comparison of the percussive activities during a time span with two hominin genera (Australopithecus boisei, early Homo and Homo erectus). The three assemblages are compared with others from the Early Stone Age and with experimental percussive tools. Despite the stable predominance of hammerstones associated with stone knapping activities over time in the Nachukui Formation, our macro- and microscopic analyses reveal an inter-site variability in the type and re-use of percussive tools for specific heavy-duty pounding activities. When compared with other Early Stone Age sites, Lokalalei 2C, Kokiselei 1 and Kokiselei 4 similarly present a low frequency of pounding tools but a high number of blanks used for both flaking and pounding activities, suggesting that the reutilization of the tools and the change in their functionality was common in the ESA lithic record.

Objectives Paleopathological studies suggest different patterns of age-related bone loss and osteoporosis in past populations compared with those of modern times. However, the observed interpopulational differences are often difficult to interpret due to considerable environmental and biological heterogeneity between populations from which the analyzed skeletal samples come. In the present paper, we try to determine whether there was a directional trend in occurrence of this phenomenon in the past as a consequence of changes in life conditions over the last six thousand years of human history. Materials and methods The study involved 276 female skeletons from four geographically homogeneous populations dated from Neolithic to early modern times coming from a region located in present-day Poland. Bone mineral density and bone fractures were examined for all the skeletons. Polymorphisms of the vitamin D receptor gene associated with low BMD were analyzed using PCR in individuals randomly selected from all of the studied skeletal series. Results In all the analyzed populations, BMD was found to significantly decrease with age. The only statistically significant interpopulational differences were found for the Neolithic skeletal series, with females in all age groups exhibiting higher BMD values and no osteoporotic fractures compared with the historical populations. Discussion The much better bone maintenance in Neolithic women may have resulted from a favorable confluence of high levels of physical activity, exposure to UV radiation, and a diet with an appropriate calcium intake.

Raw materials deriving from the aquatic environment were systematically used for personal ornamentation by modern humans throughout their entire history. In this study we analyse three types of raw materials: Lithoglyphus sp. shells, Unio sp. valves and Cyprinus carpio opercular bones. The central purpose of this paper is to initiate a database of the way in which wear develops according to the system of attachment and the longevity of use. In order to identify the costs invested in the manufacturing of these types of items, both from the point of view of time and effort, an experimental programme has been developed, which permits the recording of all the variables (means of gathering the raw material, technological stages, time recorded for each operation, and tools used). Furthermore, it was set the task of wearing the beads experimentally processed, as adornments, for two years, and of periodically evaluating the perforation and the surface of the pieces under a microscope. Moreover, observations made on archaeological specimens were compared to experimental replicas. The archaeological assemblages from the Romanian Neolithic were used as a case study to illustrate the relevance of the results.

There are many reports of ancient DNA from bacteria of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) being present in skeletons with and without osteological indications of tuberculosis. A possible complication in these studies is that extracts might also contain DNA from the microbiome of the individual whose remains are being analysed and/or from environmental bacteria that have colonised the skeleton after death. These contaminants might include ‘mycobacteria other than tuberculosis’ (MOTT), which are common in the environment, but which are not normally associated with clinical cases of tuberculosis. In this paper we show that MOTT of various types, as well as bacteria of related genera, are present in most if not all archaeological remains. Our results emphasise the complications inherent in the biomolecular study of archaeological human tuberculosis. The specificity of any polymerase chain reaction directed at the MTBC cannot be assumed and, to confirm that an amplification is authentic, a sequencing strategy must be applied that allows characterisation of the PCR product. Any variations from the reference MTBC sequence must then be checked against sequence data for MOTT and other species to ensure that the product does actually derive from MTBC. Our results also illustrate the challenges faced when assembling MTBC genome sequences from ancient DNA samples, as misidentification of MOTT sequence reads as MTBC would lead to errors in the assembly. Identifying such errors would be particularly difficult, if not impossible, if the MOTT DNA content is greater than that of the authentic MTBC. The difficulty in identifying and excluding MOTT sequences is exacerbated by the fact that many MOTT are still uncharacterized and hence their sequence features are unknown.

Recent carbon-14 studies of phytoliths from modern plants collected from extra-tropical regions of the world have yielded dates that are too old by several hundred to thousands of years. These findings have prompted questions about the suitability of phytolith-derived carbon for dating in archaeological and paleo-environmental research. In this paper, phytolith 14 C ages are determined from a number of modern Neotropical plant taxa collected between 1964 and 2013. The specimens studied are maize ( Zea mays L.), two squash species ( Cucurbita ecuadorensis H.C.Cutler & Whitaker and C. ficifolia Bouche), and two trees common in Neotropical forest, Hirtella americana L. and Socratea durissima (Oersted) H. Uendl. They represent families, genera, and species that are well-represented in Neotropical archaeological and paleoecological sediments. Every phytolith sample returned a post-bomb 14 C phytolith age reflecting collection after 1955, with the exception of a herbarium specimen that was treated with chemicals containing radiocarbon-dead carbon. The phytolith dates do not indicate a source of extraneous old or young carbon occurring on the surfaces or inside of phytoliths that bias their ages. Such findings are also reflected by previous phytolith 14 C studies of ancient Neotropical sites. Possible reasons for the differences in results between these and other studies and varying interpretations of soil and sediment phytolith 14 C analyses by different investigators are discussed.

This paper examines the potential of oxygen stable isotope composition of Sparidae (sea-bream) tooth enamel phosphate (δ 18 O P ) as an indicator of the habitat in which the fish were captured. The isotopic compositions of Sparidae molariform teeth recovered from the coastal site of Tel Dor (northern coast of Israel), from a sequence dated to the 12th–7th centuries BCE and from modern samples were studied. The δ 18 O P values of the archaeological specimens exhibited a wide range of values, varying between 21.3 and 25.2 ± 0.2‰. While δ 18 O P values from the teeth dated to the 12th–9th centuries BCE resembled typical East Mediterranean coastal water, some of the later teeth, dated to the 9th–7th centuries BCE, exhibited higher values. The later values indicate tooth enamel deposition in a hyper-saline environment similar to δ 18 O P values of Sparidae observed at Bardawil Lagoon (Southeastern Mediterranean coast, east of the Suez Canal, Egypt). Prior to this study all Sparidae fish recovered at Tel Dor were regarded as evidence of local fishing activity. The current results exhibit, for the first time, that some of the Sparids may have been exported from the Bardawil Lagoon. We discuss, however, an alternative scenario, namely, the possible existence of saline lagoons near Tel Dor in antiquity.

The production of prepared backed artifacts during the Paleolithic is recognized as an important step in the design of stone tools for manual activities and the development of human tool ergonomics. Backed artifacts are generally identified as proxies of so-called “modern” behavior, partly because they tend to be associated with systematic hafting, but mostly because they are widespread within Middle Stone Age (MSA) or Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) assemblages attributed to anatomically modern humans. However, in Europe these tools were first manufactured by Neanderthal groups associated with the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MAT) techno-complex and Discoid and Levallois technologies, using a range of flake blanks. Investigating the reasons for this behavioral leap forward can help to unravel the development and diffusion of various aspects defining the behavioral complexity of Paleolithic humans. In this paper we present a detailed analysis of one of the oldest and richest collections of prepared backed items preserved in Europe. We study several dozens of what – in a broad sense – are considered backed artifacts, with both natural and predetermined knapped backs, recovered from unit A9 at Fumane Cave, which is dated to at least 47.6 cal ky, and is characterized by discoid technology. Our methodology integrates results obtained from technological, techno-functional and use-wear analyses, further supported by experimental data. Two distinctive types of anthropogenic modifications have been identified, both aimed at creating a back or at modifying and accommodating an already existing back. By cross-checking our results with use-wear data, we show that some of these modifications were aimed at adjusting the shapes of the tools (knives and/or scrapers) for manual handling, although traces consistent with hafting have been recognized on a few specimens. Contextual information allows us to infer that these adjustments involved mainly tools used in precision activities, whose design and production implies varying levels of expertise and technical skills. Although still not systematic or standardized, the kinds of complex tool-making implied by backing can be considered as typical feature in the technological repertoires of late Neanderthals.

This paper is the second of a series on the craniology of four species of Bos . It is a further study of the skulls of British domestic cattle which are used in an attempt to establish a basic craniology for the genus. Part 1 ( Grigson, 1974 ) dealt with nomenclature, material, history, age assessment and absolute size. This paper deals first with cranial proportions and then with cranial angles. The results show that the proportions of the skull depend on its size and, to a lesser extent, on its sex, cows having relatively narrow skulls, with short horncores, but sometimes longer horns than bulls. Cranial angles seem to be independent of size or sex, but are influenced slightly by age, and also, in some cases, strongly by breed.

This paper is the third in a series on the craniology of four species of Bos and it is the last of the three papers in which the skulls of British domestic cattle are used in an attempt to establish a basic craniology for the genus. Part 1 ( Grigson, 1974 ) dealt with nomenclature, material, history, age assessment and absolute size. Part 2 ( Grigson, 1975 ) dealt with cranial proportions and angles. This paper deals first with sagittal profiles and then with other non-measurable characters. Sagittal profiles may be rounded or pointed with some intermediate forms. The rounded shape (an infantile character) persists throughout life in some breeds and is unaffected by age, sex or size. The pointed form develops with age in some breeds and is probably more marked in older and larger animals. Seventeen other minor characters are examined for the effects of age, sex, breed and size.

The first three papers in this series ( Grigson, 1974 , Grigson, 1975 , Grigson, 1976 ) studied the basic craniology of the genus Bos using B. taurus as an example; the fourth paper ( Grigson 1978 ) concluded that B. primigenius and B. taurus form a continuum. The present paper examines absolute size, proportional relationships, sagittal profiles, cranial angles and non-measurable characters of B. indicus, and notes similarities to and differences from B. taurus and B. primigenius. It suggests that B. indicus may be more closely related to B. namadicus, but evidence for this will be more fully discussed in the last paper of the series (Grigson, in prep.). The occurrence of neotenic characters in B. indicus is discussed.

This paper is the first of a series on the craniology of four species of Bos . Here (and in the next paper) Bos taurus in Britain is used to establish a basic craniology for the genus. In the initial sections notes are made on the nomenclature, material available, history, and age assessment of B. taurus . The subsequent section deals with the effects of sex, age and breed on absolute size. The results show that Bos taurus is very variable, particularly in the length of the horncore. Sex influences certain dimensions very greatly, particularly those of breadth. Although the horns of cows are often longer than those of bulls of the same breed the horn cores may be shorter in cows. In studying the effects of age it can be seen that growth rates are initially very high, slowing down at about three years of age. Tooth row length decreases with age and hence it is a particularly unreliable indicator of size. Obviously breed affects size and it has been possible to divide the skulls studied into size groups which correspond well with known body weights.

The three previous papers in this series Grigson, 1974 , Grigson, 1975 , Grigson, 1976 were a study of the basic craniology of the genus Bos using B. taurus as an example. This paper deals with B. primigenius from Holocene deposits in northern Europe, studying the relationship of absolute size, cranial proportions, angles and non-measurable characters to age and sex. It concludes that the two size forms of B. primigenius are merely the expression of sexual dimorphism, that the two forms B. primigenius and B. taurus are so similar that they form a continuum and should be considered to be of the same taxon, and that where B. taurus does differ from B. primigenius the differences can usually be ascribed to breed and can be described as specializations.

Use-wear and residue analyses of stone artefacts are widely used to better understand the behaviour and resource utilization of past peoples. There are numerous ethnographic reports describing the processing of animal parts, but identification of collagen, the principle component of animal protein, can be difficult because of the similarity in appearance to other non-collagenous residues (e.g. Lombard and Wadley, 2007). Additionally, damage to collagen structure caused by processing and taphonomic factors can alter collagen's microscopic morphological features and further prevent microscopic identification. This paper describes the trialling, blind testing and application of a modified Picro-Sirius Red (PSR) staining protocol not reliant on intact morphology which can be used to identify archaeological collagenous residues. The protocol allows for differentiation of Types I, II and III collagen and can detect the minuscule amounts in archaeological samples. The application of this staining protocol to ten grindstones from arid and semi-arid regions in south and central Australia supports the view that lack of collagen heretofore reported in residue studies is more likely the result of under-detection than its absence (see Monnier et al., 2012). The staining protocol represents an inexpensive, efficient and reliable process which can be added to contemporary use-wear and residue analyses. This addition allows more inclusive assessments of past function and promotes wider understandings of the behaviour of past peoples.

This paper explores the contribution of plant foods to the diet of presumed pastoral societies in Kazakhstan. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis, together with radiocarbon dating, was carried out on human and animal bones from 25 Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, Hunic and Turkic sites across Kazakhstan. We use these data to examine dietary differences across time and space within and between populations.Our results show that at the Bronze Age sites of mountainous southern Kazakhstan people consumed C4 plants, likely domesticated millets (Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica) as supported by previously published archaeobotanical direct evidence. By dating individuals with high δ13C values we find the earliest evidence to date of the consumption of large quantities of millet in Central Asia. By contrast, there is little input of C4 plants to diets of individuals dating to the Bronze Age from northern Kazakhstan. Stable isotope data from later periods show that from the Early Iron Age and continuing through to the Turkic period, C4 plants were a major component of the human food web across the region. The wide variety of stable isotope results, both within and between contemporary sites from the southern regions of Kazakhstan, indicates a diversity of food choice.

Growing archaeological interest in illuminating human-scale events and experiences in the ancient past has led to increased scrutiny of chronological assumptions based on old and (by today's standards) imprecise radiocarbon databases. One result has been a greater awareness of the need for more numerous and higher quality assays that can be directly linked to the specific events in question. In this paper, a method is described and tested for extracting and directly dating the organic fiber temper characteristic of North America's oldest pottery technology. Multiple extraction techniques are considered, as are a number of chemical pretreatment options. Six pairs of assays on Orange and Stallings vessels from Florida and Georgia are used to demonstrate the veracity of radiocarbon age estimates from fiber temper. In each of these cases, the fiber assay meets or exceeds recently proposed chronometric hygiene standards.

California mussel (Mytilus californianus) are ubiquitous shellfish species in coastal archaeological sites throughout western North America but are often highly fragmentary when recovered in small-volume ‘column’ or ‘bulk’ samples typically used to quantify shellfish assemblages. Archaeological research has predominantly focused on evaluating the dietary contribution of Mytilus but most studies assume an average meat weight or use categorical size classifications to determine subsistence strategies and harvest profiles. In this paper, we develop and evaluate a regression-based method for estimating shell length and meat weight for fragmentary Mytilus remains. Our regressions are based on live-collected M. californianus specimens from multiple locations in California and British Columbia and provide considerable statistical confidence for predicting length and meat weight. We also apply the same regressions to a collection of Mytilus trossulus and show similar predictive equations, indicating this method can be used in cases where it is not possible to distinguish morphologically between M. californianus and M. trossulus. We demonstrate how these results improve upon previous size-classification methods and discuss the potential for applying these measurements to enhance the relevance of these zooarchaeological data for modern marine conservation and management efforts.

In this paper we present the results of a study of post-cranial fusion in pigs (Sus scrofa) and propose a new system for the construction of harvest profiles of pigs based on epiphyseal fusion. The study examined post-crania of 40 Asian wild boar in museum and personal collections. It finds a regular pattern in the sequence of fusion of elements in this sample that also agrees with the fusion sequences of 56 European wild boar published in earlier studies. The fusion sequence of post-cranial elements is grouped into eleven different age classes (AeK). Comparison of the dentition based age classes assigned to 38 of the wild boar studied here and in an earlier study (Lemoine et al., 2014) shows a close correspondence between dental and fusion based age classes. Although the age at death of these specimens is not known, it is possible to assign age estimates for the fusion based age classes defined here based on the relatively secure age estimates for the dentition based age classes. A comparison of the fusion based harvest profile for a large assemblage of pig remains from the Epipaleolithic site of Hallan Cemi (southeastern Anatolia) constructed using the system proposed here with dentition based profiles using the three systems proposed in Lemoine et al. shows a very close correspondence, especially in the younger age classes. We conclude with a consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of fusion based and dentition based harvest profiles finding that when taphonomic conditions permit fusion based harvest profiles are a valuable tool for understanding ancient exploitation strategies, especially when used in tandem with dentition based profiles. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

When exposed to open seawater, waterlogged wood can be subject to rapid degradation by Teredo navalis (commonly known as shipworm). However, in certain instances archaeological wood is not always attacked by shipworm. This does not appear to be related to wood species alone but more to the state of preservation of the wood. The aim of the current paper was to assess what effect the state of preservation of the wood has on attack by shipworm. To address this, sections of 6000 year-old waterlogged oak wood ( Quercus sp.) that were heavily microbially degraded, were submerged at Lynaes in the southern part of Kattegat, Denmark, where shipworm are known to be prolific. Following four months exposure the wood samples were assessed visually, physically and chemically. Visually it was immediately apparent that only the heartwood was attacked by shipworm, whilst the surrounding sapwood was left intact. There was a significant difference in the state of preservation (density) of the sapwood (153 kg/m 3 ) when compared with the heartwood (370 kg/m 3 ). Further characterisation of the sapwood and heartwood by wet chemical methods and Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy showed that the amount of cellulose in the non-attacked sapwood was very low when compared to the attacked heartwood. This suggests that a certain amount of cellulose is needed before there is enough nutrition for the shipworm to attack. These initial results indicate that the state of preservation of timbers has an effect on the attack of wood by shipworm and therefore should be taken into consideration when planning any in-situ preservation/stabilisation of timbers.

The aurochs ( Bos primigenius ) is generally agreed to be the wild ancestor of domestic cattle ( Bos taurus ) and an in-depth knowledge of this animal is therefore key to research exploring human–cattle interactions, and the origins and spread of cattle domestication. Domestic cattle are smaller than their wild ancestors, but there is also a degree of overlap between the two species, which means that distinguishing them can be problematic. However, previous analyses of aurochs morphology have generally been patchy, and do not provide a picture of aurochs variation across Europe according to environment, climate and geography. As a consequence, zooarchaeologists often refer to comparative biometrical data from geographical areas and time periods which may not be suitable for identifying remains from their study area. This paper presents results from a wide-ranging study of aurochs biometrical data, in order to provide an overview of its morphological variation across Europe, and highlight the importance of using geographically and climatically appropriate comparative data when attempting to identify and interpret the significance of aurochs remains. We also propose a set of ‘standard’ measurements from an aurochs population excavated at the site of Ilford (Essex, UK) dated to Marine Isotope Stage 7 with the hope that they will be of use to others seeking a suitable standard for the biometrical analysis of cattle populations, especially when looking for the presence of wild specimens.