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We present a detailed response to the critique by Mr. Jansen of the paper “ Digging Deeper: Insights into Metallurgical Transitions in European Prehistory through Copper Isotopes ”. When we consider Cu isotope ratios of European Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age artifacts in the context of their local geological settings, climates, and archaeological contexts, Mr. Jansen's hypothesis that 63 Cu enrichment results from the adoption of fahlore ores is untenable. In both Serbia and Central Europe, the earliest copper production is associated with 65 Cu-enriched ores and subsequently produced artifacts yield lower ranges δ 65 Cu. This shift in Cu isotopic composition correlates with the initial use of predominantly hypogene ores, not with variations in their trace element content. Essentially the expanded dataset supports the conclusions that were presented in the original paper—Cu isotopes are an effective means of delineating the transition from oxide-based smelting to methodologically more complex smelting of sulphide ores in prehistoric Europe with its relatively limited production and trade. Mixing did not mask the critical Cu isotope signatures in this setting. Therefore, Cu isotope compositions of artifacts can be used to interpret the mineralogical character of the ores from which they were produced, regardless of their provenance, as long as trade networks remained within a region of similar climatic history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of lithic microwear research into the wider archaeological community by Keeley (1980) was concurrent with the development of the processual paradigm and the adoption of the scientific method. Subsequently, lithic microwear research has benefited from over 35 years of innovation, including the introduction of novel methodological and analytical procedures. The present study employs a citation network to objectively analyse the development of microwear research. Given developments in technology, as well as the institutional isolation of early microwear research, the present analysis considers the citation network that stems from Keeley's seminal 1980 volume. The 363 papers identified as having cited Keeley (1980) in the subsequent 35 years were treated as individual nodes within the citation network. Before analysis, nodes were assigned attributes, including the type of research published and whether they were supportive of three key aspects of Keeley's experimental program: the ability to determine the function of the tool and to ascertain the type of worked material from microwear, as well as the use of high-powered microscopy techniques. Emergent properties of the papers, including closeness centrality, indegree and betweenness centrality, are used to test for significant differences between paper attributes. Similarly a clustering algorithm is used to objectively define distinct clusters of important papers within the discipline. Results indicate that a small number of nodes in the network maintain statistically significant influence on the form of the citation network. These important nodes and the distinct ‘schools of thought’ identified are discussed in the context of Keeley's initial contribution to the sub-field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous approaches to earthquakes in archaeology, characterizing the geoarchaeological subfield archaeoseismology, have focused on types of seismic destructions and anti-seismic constructions in architectural remains. A challenge often raised in archaeoseismology relates to issues of equifinality since other human or environmental factors can also cause the archaeoseismc types in question. Furthermore, geological markers of earthquakes are rarely identified directly, i.e., stratigraphically, with archaeoseismic evidence. To address these challenges, this paper offers a methodological innovation through the geoarchaeological subfield of soil micromorphology to investigate earthquakes in the form of seismically triggered soft sediment deformation structures (SSDS) in direct stratigraphic association with architecture. Applications to the case of Helike in Greece — infamous victim of a major earthquake in 373 BCE — reveal not only key evidence for three earthquake events in the form of seismically triggered SSDS but also other geological hazards, including flooding and rapid coastal change, in association with Hellenistic period (late fourth to second century BCE) architecture. The results offer advancements for archaeology and suggest that geoarchaeology and soil micromorphology applications become standard in archaeology, particularly archaeoseismology, for the identification and interpretation of earthquakes. These advancements offer new avenues for exploring geological aspects of the human past. • Innovations in archaeological soil micromorphology can identify seismic deformation. • Earthquakes deform archaeological soils and sediments. • Hydromorphic conditions amplify earthquake deformation in soils and sediments. • Mw 5 or greater earthquakes cause architectural destruction and sediment deformation. • Archaeoseismology and soil micromorphology are subfields of geoarchaeology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper advances knowledge of human behavioural and adaptational strategies in coastal areas related to acquiring, producing and distributing ornaments, specifically, the omnipresent marine gastropod Columbella rustica. By applying quantitative and qualitative approaches to the most extensive collection of Columbella rustica shells in the Eastern Adriatic region discovered in the Late Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic levels of Vlakno cave in Croatia, we have determined the complete step-by-step life cycle of this bead type , in particular, where and how shells were collected, produced, used, distributed and discarded. By integrating different methodologies, our data revealed changes in the collection strategies, reduction of the shell size during the Mesolithic period, and standardisation and continuity in production techniques. Detailed analyses of broken shells in the archaeological assemblage identified the presence of technological traces resulting from processing mistakes, supporting our hypothesis of on-site production. A significant share of used and unused standardised beads points that bead production at this site was for personal use but also likely for the exchange and distribution systems. Standardised, systematic and long-lasting activity related to the ornaments places Vlakno cave as one of the leading centres for maintaining regional exchange and communication networks in the Eastern Adriatic region during significant climatic and environmental changes happening in this region in the Late Pleniglacial and the early Holocene. Detecting on-site activities related to the ornaments in Vlakno cave has extended our understanding of how symbolic motives influenced the settlement model of the Late Pleniglacial and Early Holocene hunter-gatherers in Eastern Adriatic region and overall contributed to fundamental questions about the complexity of ancient human societies' adaptation strategies. • Chaîne opératoire and in-situ production of C. rustica ornaments • Changes in collection strategies reflected in size reduction • Standardization of production techniques in Eastern Adriatic • Archaeological broken shells as processing mistakes [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeological data provide a potential to investigate the diffusion of technological and cultural traits. However, much of this research agenda currently needs more formal quantitative methods to address small sample sizes and chronological uncertainty. This paper introduces a novel Bayesian framework for inferring the shape of diffusion curves using radiocarbon data associated with the presence/absence of a particular innovation. We developed two distinct approaches: 1) a hierarchical model that enables the fitting of an s-shaped diffusion curve whilst accounting for inter-site variations in the probability of sampling the innovation itself, and 2) a non-parametric model that can estimate the changing proportion of the innovation across user-defined time-blocks. The robustness of the two approaches was first tested against simulated datasets and then applied to investigate three case studies, the first pair on the diffusion of farming in prehistoric Japan and Britain and the third on cycles of changes in the burial practices of later prehistoric Britain. • Bayesian methods for modelling diffusion curves with radiocarbon dates are introduced. • Sample interdependence and non-sigmoid diffusion curves can be handled. • Robustness is tested on simulated datasets and archaeological case studies. • Code and data are available on a GitHub repository and archived on Zenodo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birch bark tar was used extensively throughout human history. While later ceramic-based production technologies are known, prehistoric aceramic techniques leave little to no archaeological evidence. Experimental tar production attempts to fill this gap and suggest potential techniques. However, their archaeological relevance is unclear. Through an in-depth biomolecular analysis using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, this study attempts to differentiate tars produced using four experimental aceramic techniques: condensation, ash mound, pit roll, and raised structure. In doing so we publish the largest collection of GC-MS results of aceramic birch tars. The results show that pentacyclic triterpenoids, characteristic of birch bark, vary between the production techniques in relation to heating exposure and perhaps the tar collection method. This allows for a tentative identification of tars produced through the condensation and ash mound techniques, which were formed consistently using short periods of heating and collected systematically by scraping. In contrast, tars produced using the pit roll and raised structure techniques do not have consistent molecular signatures. Despite the partial success of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, the archaeological relevance is questioned because this technique is only applicable to samples from optimum lipid preservation conditions when a high number of pentacyclic triterpenoids are preserved. Therefore, using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry to determine the transformation methods of organics, like birch bark, may not be an appropriate standalone technique to fairly discuss the technological capabilities of past populations. • The paper contains the largest collection of GC-MS results of aceramic birch tars. • GC-MS details unique molecular signatures related to differences in heating. • Applying these patterns to identify ancient tar production techniques is difficult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Textiles unearthed along the Silk Road are important material evidence of the spread and exchange of cultures in ancient Eurasia. This paper examines fibers and natural dyes in archaeological textiles from the Wei and Jin dynasties (220–420 CE) unearthed in Bazhou, a major route in the Xinjiang region of the ancient Silk Road. Optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and proteomics analysis were used to examine and compare ancient and modern fibers. The result showed that the ancient textile samples tested consisted of silk, wool and cotton. Two species of silk were accurately identified, Bombyx mori silk and Bombyx mandarina silk. In addition, dyes were extracted from textile artifacts using a mild extraction method and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector and a mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS). As a result, the identified red dyes can be divided into plant dyes and insect dyes, such as Rubia cordifolia , Rubia tinctorum and Kermes vermilio. The yellow dyes identified were derived from plants such as Reseda luteola , Phellodendron chinense , Phellodendron amurense , Berberis spp. The blue dyes identified in these textiles indicate the presence of indigo. These dyes are not only local, but also many exotic dyes from central or eastern China, and even from the Mediterranean coast. This study reveals the diversity of fibers and natural dyes used in the historic Lop Nor area of Bazhou, providing insights into their species origination and distribution. • Multi-analytical techniques were used for fiber identification in archaeological textiles from Bazhou, Xinjiang. • Bombyx mori silk and Bombyx mandarina silk were distinguished by proteomics analysis. • Plant and insect dyes were identified by HPLC-DAD-MS technique. • Exotic dyes from the Mediterranean coast were found in wool. • These fibers and dyes attest to the material spread of the Silk Road during the Wei and Jin dynasties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a detailed response to Professor Pernicka's critique of our paper entitled “Iridium to provenance ancient silver”. We have concluded that Pernicka's hypothesis, which suggests that elevated levels of iridium in ancient silver artefacts is a consequence of silver deriving from the cementation (parting) process, does not account for the available evidence and that his critiques of the analyses we presented seem misplaced. We offer a simpler solution and show that the structure of our transformed data is founded on logical reasoning which is borne out by the empirical results. Essentially, this response supports our view reported in the original paper that the variation in iridium in ancient silver is largely geological rather than a consequence of de-silvering gold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different approaches are used to study wood provenance, but most of them are based on tracers in wood that are generally controlled by climatic factors. The strontium isotopic ratio 87 Sr/ 86 Sr in trees and soils is related to the signature of the local bedrock. Despite being used in diverse archaeological studies, Sr isotopes have rarely been used to trace the provenance of archaeological wood and especially wood from shipwrecks. In addition, recent analytical advances have allowed the detection of mass-dependent fractionation of Sr isotopes during biogeochemical processes, as reflected in the variation of δ 88/86 Sr values between different environmental materials. The δ 88/86 Sr values could be used in conjunction with the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope ratio to improve constraints on the sources of Sr in the archaeological materials being studied. This paper discusses the potential and limitations of using both of these Sr isotope ratios to trace the provenance of wood from shipwrecks. We review the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and δ 88/86 Sr variations in rocks, waters, soils, plants and other living organisms and discuss how to determine the local Sr isotopic signature of potential sites. We also compile a list of known wood post mortem modifications in seawater. Possible implications in terms of the modification of the original Sr isotope ratios of wood during storage in seawater are illustrated through preliminary observations. This paper points out some limitations and perspectives for using Sr isotopes in provenancing wood from shipwrecks, and suggests future research to test and apply this approach for tracing the origin of archaeological wood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeological GIS is moving towards increasingly detailed, embodied, multidimensional simulations and analyses of human experience in the past. Most of the emerging GIS research synthesizing spatial modeling and subject-centered approaches has been concerned with practices and perceptions of landscape. This paper tightens the analytical focus to the more intimate scale of a single settlement, combining models of movement and visual experience within a planned colonial town in highland Peru. Such a rendering is important, since controlling movement and visual experience were central to the colonial project that built this and other such towns in the Viceroyalty of Peru. This study centers on an exceptionally well-preserved, relict planned colonial town in highland Peru to investigate affordances of movement and visibility within it. Several GIS-based simulations and analytical techniques are brought together, including drone-based high resolution three dimensional modeling, spatial network analysis, walking models, and cumulative viewshed analysis, to simulate aggregate visual experience as people moved through the town. The results are suggestive of how the layout of the town specifically routed transit to facilitate the visual prominence of the church and original Inka plaza of the reducción, as well as the prominence of indigenous elite households. Both continuities and discontinuities of movement and visual experience relative to Inkaic and Spanish colonial spaces are evident. By extension, this paper also provides a pathway for quantitative and reproducible modeling of site-scale movement and visual affordances as dimensions of subject and community formation in other global contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a political ecological framework for Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis to examine changes in agricultural land in ancient and early historical contexts. It raises several issues pertinent to archaeological epistemology and science, with a particular focus on the limitations of using fixed data categories to examine fluid environmental processes and ecological relationships. The paper draws on political ecological theories that define land as a social process, moving beyond economic conceptions of agricultural land that rest on productive capacity and phenomenological theories that examine the physical environment in terms of cultural perception. It combines qualitative (archival) and quantitative (archaeological) data in a GIS methodology to address how linked changes in physical land attributes and labor routines can affect regional ecologies and foment social conflict. In empirical terms, the paper traces changes from maize to wheat fields during Spanish colonization (ca. 1533-1670) in Ollantaytambo, Peru, a monumental Inca town near the capital of their empire. It reveals how ecological transformations that occurred during this century–widespread deaths throughout, abandonment of Inca fields, and introduction of European biota–in part framed conflicts between Andean people and the colonial regime, and also empowered local farmers to claim land in previously undeveloped areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over 30 years ago, Kintigh and Ammerman (1982) outlined and applied a heuristic approach to spatial archaeology that balanced quantitative analyses and culturally and historically contextualized archaeology. The theoretical and methodological messages were that we need to do more than “eyeball” spatial patterns, we need to apply the proper analyses based on the characteristics of our datasets, and we need to ensure that our models, quantitative analyses, and resulting interpretations are based in the proper cultural and historical contexts. My goal in this paper is to examine how two of the concepts in this approach, significance and context, apply to a modern spatial archaeology that heavily utilizes geospatial computing tools. Although these tools help to solve several concerns that existed in the field 30 years ago, they can also cause others, such as mistaking autocorrelation for correlation or confusion about which of the multitude of available analytical tools is appropriate for particular questions and datasets. In this paper, I present a simplified version of the methodology I have used to address these concerns. I use archaeological, historical, and GIS-modeled data to compare the regional patterning of hierarchical and egalitarian societies in southeastern North America to examine why hierarchical sociopolitical organizations may have arose where they did. I end with a critical review of this approach and a discussion of how such research can be improved moving forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being human embodies understandings of space and spatial relationships which are embedded within the material world and are underpinned by complex frameworks of knowledge and experience. Just as this applied to people living in the past, so it applies to those of us concerned with trying to understand those past lives through the archaeological record. Most, if not all, archaeological material has a spatial component and it is not surprising, therefore, that spatial thinking has been central within archaeological endeavour since the beginnings of the discipline. Specific forms of spatial thinking have changed with developing theory and methods and with changing analytical and technological opportunities resulting in the rich variety of approaches available to us today. Within this development, the rapid adoption of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology since the early 1990s has had a major impact on archaeology and related disciplines and its use is now almost taken for granted. Although the use of GIS in archaeology has always been, and still is contentious at the theoretical level, the attractions of the technology are usually seen to outweigh any restrictions or disadvantages. In this paper we situate the use of GIS, including the papers in this volume, within the wider arena of spatial thinking in archaeology in an attempt to assess the impact that this technology has had on how we think spatially. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of copper used in Late Bronze Age (LBA) Egypt is very poorly understood despite its cultural and economic importance attested in archaeological and historical sources. Extensive literature discusses major LBA copper sources such as Cyprus (oxhide ingots), Oman (bun ingots) and Egyptian-controlled sites in the Sinai. This paper presents new chemical and lead isotope data for Egyptian copper alloys excavated in several bronze production workshops from the New Kingdom capital Pi-Ramesse, expanding on earlier data from Amarna. Supporting data is obtained from the analysis of crucible remains from the same context, for which the potential contribution of lead isotope analysis is critically evaluated. Diachronic changes in the provisioning of these Egyptian workshops are discussed, incorporating an extensive overview of currently known Egyptian mining and metallurgy. The results have major implications for our understanding of LBA copper circulation in the wider region, for the first time analysing a major Egyptian ‘consumer’ assemblage. The analytical results reveal a complex picture of variable copper supply to the Ramesside workshops, which involved both the recycling of existing bronzes and the use of freshly smelted copper from various origins to produce fresh alloys. Importantly, this includes crucial new evidence for the melting of (Cypriot) oxhide ingot fragments in crucibles for alloying. The royal, internationally connected nature of these workshops makes Pi-Ramesse an exceptional case study of LBA metal trade, and hypotheses raised in this paper highlight the need for more extensive analysis of ancient Egyptian copper artefacts to grasp metal circulation throughout Egypt's long history. More refined frameworks, incorporating the variety of private as well as royal contexts, will improve understanding of Egypt's ancient economic organisation. This paper offers new perspectives onto LBA metal supply and consumption networks, with broader archaeological interpretative models of economic and political interactions across the wider ancient Near East. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper follows two earlier papers about Portuguese gesso gilding grounds, a typical decoration from the 13th to the 18th century but with a special focus on the Baroque period. It concentrates on understanding the reasons why these gilded surfaces are so durable. The main concerns of the people involved in the production of the gilded surfaces, as revealed in contemporary historical documents, are the quality and durability of the decorations. The investigation of ‘durability’ involved the study of factors not explored before regarding materials and practices commonly used to produce gilded wooden surfaces in South Europe. The paper discusses the probable effects on durability of loading a binder with a filler, of the shape and size of the filler particles, of the interaction of filler and binder, and of using a multi-layered system; it discusses the science underlying the use and behaviour of particular gilding materials and practices. This paper is followed by a second paper focused on technological choices. Together they aim to contribute to understanding why Portuguese gilders clearly chose double-structured gesso grounds in preference to other possibilities, and to aid on conservation decision-making and the design of new strategies for the treatment and preservation of these historical gilded surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is the fourth in a series covering Portuguese gesso gilding grounds from the late 13th to the 18th century, but with a special focus on the Baroque period when gilded surfaces played an important religious, political and social role in Portugal. This fourth paper concentrates on unravelling the motives of the craftsmen who chose to produce grounds for gilded surfaces using very specific materials and techniques: gypsum, as the raw material, and a double-structured layered system. It seems plausible that the properties of this type of ground, the religious and social importance and the function of the gilded objects, cultural influences from southern European, and the particular Portuguese historical context all contributed to this choice. This paper aims to contribute to enrich understanding of gilding technology and to inform conservation decision-making for the preservation of these gilded objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The various theoretical approaches advanced over the past 50 years to explain the origins of agriculture have prompted much discussion and debate. Most recently, controversy has arisen concerning the utility of two Darwinian approaches; namely, cultural niche construction (CNC) and human behavioral ecology-derived optimal foraging theory (OFT). Recent papers advocate for the primacy of cultural niche construction, calling for optimal foraging approaches to be all but disregarded in the quest to explain how and why foragers became farmers (Smith, 2015, 2016; Zeder, 2015, 2016). In particular, it is claimed that archaeological, paleo-environmental, and paleontological evidence from the Neotropics of northern South America fail to meet predictions derived from OFT theory, while predictions said to be derived from CNC-based approaches are supported (Smith, 2015, 2016; Zeder, 2015). However, a number of misreadings of the northern South America evidence are made in those discussions, while some pertinent literature is not considered. In this paper we discuss these misreadings and provide a clear re-articulation of the original data and interpretations, finding support for OFT predictions. Our re-evaluations of OFT and CNC further suggest they can, in fact, be complimentary explanatory approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bark cloth (‘tapa/kapa’) is a fabric made from beaten plant fibres. In the Pacific tapa made of paper mulberry has been of great cultural importance and its use is associated with both utilitarian and ceremonial contexts. In the 19th century, traditional bark cloth was largely replaced by Western cloth. On some islands, tapa making was banished with the arrival of missionaries and Christianization. This is the case for the Gambier Islands in French Polynesia. Only a few tapa pieces from this island group survive and are held in Museum collections. In this work, we present results of the analysis of a bark cloth bundle discovered at the Te Ana o te Tetea cave on Agakauitai in the Gambier Archipelago. The bundle was made up of large and small strips of thin tapa, with some watermarks left by the beaters. Associated with the tapa, were a piece of wood and cordage. A few of the bark cloth samples showed symmetrical black lines along some of the folds. This paper presents the results of a number of analyses performed on the bark cloth bundle from this island with the aim of determining its age, if the decorations were man-made and the plant species used for its manufacture. Samples were dated by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and the designs were analyzed by portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscopy - Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) for elemental characterization. Raman spectroscopy was also performed in order to assess the chemical nature of pigments. These analyses allow us to conclude that the finds date to the pre-European contact period for this island group and that these lines can be attributed to man-made designs. In addition, genetic analysis of the ribosomal region were performed to identify the species used in its manufacture, which indicate that the plant used to make the tapa cloth was Broussonetia papyrifera or paper mulberry. The availability of new genetic sequencing techniques allow for new and very sensitive analyses of archaeological material that require careful handling from the beginning in order to avoid sample contamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In archaeology, the study of past plant processing activities in domestic spaces has hitherto relied greatly on the observed distribution of macrobotanical and artefactual remains. However, the surfaces where such activities took place can themselves preserve microscopic remains, potentially traceable to the activity that originated them. This paper presents new aspects of plant-related tasks, and the use of living space, at household level, in Neolithic Çatalhöyük through spatial analyses of phytoliths and starch grains recovered from two house floors. Results have revealed plant-related tasks such as crop processing, the use of plant-based crafts, and the management and culinary use of wild resources previously unrepresented in the archaeobotanical assemblage. These distinctive uses of vegetal resources in domestic spaces identified through microbotanical remains have shed light on new complex aspects of household social organisation in one of the earliest farming communities in Western Asia. • Phytoliths and starch grains reveal evidence of plant processing activities. • Post-harvest processes occurred rutinary in indoor living spaces. • Wild plants, such as geophytes, played an active role in the local foodways. • Specific houses fulfilled the food-related tasks of an extended household unit. • Microbotanical and spatial analyses are valuable tools for studying living spaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the nature of copying errors in the cultural transmission of material culture is highly relevant for students of cultural evolution, especially in the field of evolutionary archaeology. In this paper, we set up a classic transmission chain experiment, which involves making clay anthropomorphic figurines, to explore the nature of the copying error related to the production of 3D objects. The experiment consists of four independent transmission chains, each with 10 participants. Three chains are non-expert chains, as they consist of students of archaeology and psychology with no formal training in arts. The fourth is an expert chain consisting of art students. Our results show that the copying error predictably differs between the experts and the non-experts – it is lower in the expert chain. However, in both groups, the error is higher than predicted by the models that assume that the copying error is only due to imperfections in the perception of linear dimensions. Taken together, these two results suggest that, in addition to the error in perception, the error in the execution contributes significantly to the overall error, as predicted by the recently formulated object-mediated transmission model (Crema et al., 2023). The results of our experiment also show that the errors are often biased rather than random, suggesting that the transmission process involves the transformations anticipated by the cultural attraction theory. • Transmission chain experiment is carried out with clay anthropomorphic figurines. • Copying error of linear dimensions is higher than the Weber fraction (3%). • Art students make less error than other students in copying features of figurines. • Copying errors are often biased, as predicted by the cultural attraction theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently, what was known about the trade of tin in the ancient Near East was based in large part on information derived from the extensive commercial archives found at the archaeological site of Kültepe (ancient Kaneš) in Turkey dating to the Middle Bronze Age (MBA) c. 1900-1750 BC. These archives were produced by an expatriate community of traders native to the city of Assur in modern-day Iraq and document an extensive shipping of tin ingots from unnamed sources east of their hometown. Tin was carried by donkeys through northern Syria and across the Taurus Mountains to Anatolia where it was sold for silver. This paper presents the first set of tin isotope analyses of bronze objects from Kültepe to test the image provided by these ancient archives, finding that all artifacts dated to the main period of Assyrian trade excavated in the residential areas of the site indeed have high tin content and high values of δ124Sn (0.77–1.74‰) relative to the NIST 3161a standard. Such high values currently compare best with ores from Central Asia. The isotopic analysis of artifacts from the Assyrian Trading Colony Period of Kültepe is therefore consistent with the textual evidence. However, Early Bronze Age samples recovered at the site are instead characterized by lower ranges that extend to neutral δ124Sn values (0.02–1.31‰). Likewise, one artifact coming from Mound Level 7 (c. 1830-1700) at the center of the site where public buildings were concentrated, and one object dated to the Hellenistic Period (Mound Level 2), when the site saw a resurgence in political importance, likewise have lower δ124Sn compositions of 0.11 and 0.31‰, respectively. Both samples also have low to moderate tin content. The Early Bronze Age artifacts form a linear array between artifacts from low δ124Sn-low Sn wt% to high δ124Sn-high Sn wt% that suggests a mixing of two compositional groups – not simply the mixing of two isotopically distinct reservoirs of tin, but also distinct in the amount of tin present in the alloy. This would be consistent with the recycling of low tin bronze objects with local tin, together with high tin bronzes containing tin from Central Asia. The two samples from Mound Levels 7 and 2 suggest that although Central Asian tin was predominant in the MBA, Anatolian tin may have continued to be used in a separate bronze production system that remained active at shifting varying of intensity throughout antiquity. • The first Sn isotope data from Kültepe, a site central to the story of Bronze Age tin trade. • Sn Isotopes reveal that trade patterns and connectivity change over time. • Sn Isotopes support the written record of imports of Central Asian tin in the MBA. • A combination of local and Asian tin is evident in the EBA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of pottery brought many changes in the way people in the past designed, cooked, stored, transported and gave meaning to their social worlds. Yet, the widespread use of these materials also brought challenges, such as how to contend with their brittleness. One of the many creative responses to this challenge, was pottery repair. At the start of the Neolithic period in central and south-east Europe, we find traces of repair activities even among the oldest pottery assemblages, which commonly consist of perforations placed alongside cracks used to bind the damaged vessels. Obtaining measurements and microscopically examining perforations can prove to be challenging, due to the accessibility constraints of most used measuring instruments. Attempting to overcome this limitation, our paper provides a method for identifying ancient drilling procedures (techniques and gestures) by integrating photogrammetric recording techniques into archaeological drilling experiments on low-fired ceramic specimens. Through this method we shed light on the unique characteristics of Early Neolithic pottery repair in the Upper Tisza/Tisa Basin (NE Hungary, NW Romania and SW Ukraine). Our experimental results using lithic borers show clear differences between two drilling techniques, i.e. thumb- and rod-drilling, according to the rotational striations produced, and the variation in the aspect ratio and centroid of perforations at different depths. Furthermore, our analysis of repair holes in Early Neolithic pottery demonstrates the consistent use of mixed drilling techniques for the purposes of repair, and the exclusive use of rod-drilling for the manufacture of sherd spindle whorls. The reconstruction of the sequences of repair also suggests that deviation from these consistent drilling procedures was likely due to the adaptation of the craftsperson to the specific damage condition of the vessels. Thus, repair work cannot be described as following a strict recipe, but as an ongoing creative process of evaluation. • Photogrammetric techniques detected diagnostic traces of drilling procedures. • Mixed use of drilling techniques for pottery repair observed at Méhtelek-Nádas. • Preference for repairing small or medium-sized open vessels unveils a regime of value. • Evidence of technical adaptation to vessels' damage state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the methods of analysing the manufacturing process of lithic tools is by "reading" the scars of removals visible on the surface of cores or bifaces. The paper aims to review the limitations of this approach, by answering the question as to how much information from the original knapping process is still preserved in the cores and bifaces. To quantify the information loss we used experimentally knapped pieces, that we then refitted to check which removals are still visible on the surface of the analysed forms. We tested different measures of information loss in the context of removals and sequences of removals, but also the chronological relationship between sequences i.e. the number of linear extensions and missing nearest connections. On average, 39.9% of the original removals and 54.1% of the sequences of removals are preserved on the surface, but only 14.1% of the original relationships between sequences can be observed. Finally, we used simple machine learning to find an algorithm for estimating the loss of the nearest chronological relationships between sequences when no refits are available. Due to the extremely high information loss for the linear order of the knapping process we: a) propose to abandon these elements of the diacritic approach which aim to reconstruct the rhythms and schemes of knapping; b) evaluate the quality of the reconstructed knapping scheme (partial order) prior to further comparative analyses. Here we propose an algorithm to estimate the number of missing connections to test the quality of the knapping process while using diacritic schemes. • The information loss refers to detached removals and the chronological relation between them. • 39.9% of detached removals are preserved on the surface of bifaces or cores. • 14.1% of the chronological relationships between sequences of removals can be observed. • The information loss during the knapping process is substantial. • It influences the chaine operatoire analyses based on tools or cores solely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence and utilization of gold beads in China were influenced by foreign civilizations and cultures, while the exploration of composite beads in China has been relatively limited compared to single-material beads. Metal foil glass beads represent a distinct type of composite beadwork popular in ancient times. This paper presents findings from a study conducted on a group of beads that were unearthed in Nanyang City, Henan Province. Theoretical calculations and CT imaging suggested that a particular class of gold beads, previously misidentified as single-material beads, actually consisted of gold foil wrapped around an inner layer of glass beads. Elemental analysis techniques such as pXRF, SEM and μ-EDXRF were used to reveal that the purity of the gold foil of the two differently shaped beads is around 95% and 98.5%, while the silver foil of the silver beads is also around 85% due to corrosion. Microscopic observation confirmed that the gold leaf was applied through foil-fusion gilding. Lead isotope analysis indicated that the gold beads originated from different sources, whereas the silver beads likely originated from the Central Plains region. Furthermore, the evidence of beadwork from Southeast Asia and South China supports the view that the gold beads may have been originally exotic but gradually adaptated through indigenous learning, allowing the creation of high-quality imitations. This study emphasizes the importance of scientific analyses for the proper determination of bead types and craftsmanship, and contributes to a better understanding of the ancient bead circulation network. • A special type of beadwork that wraps glass in a gold leaf is recognized. • The purity of the gold foil of two differently shaped beads is around 95% and 98.5%. • These gold beads may have originated in Southeast Asia and then spread to China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The highly fragmented nature of Palaeolithic faunal assemblages is a regular limitation in archaeozoological analyses as it prevents a precise taxonomic identification following comparative anatomy criteria. In this paper, we integrate Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) analysis of unidentifiable bone fragments within archaeozoological and taphonomic data to overcome this limitation and disentangle the subsistence strategies of Solutrean and Magdalenian human groups of the La Viña rock shelter (northern Iberia). The ZooMS results are consistent with the archaeozoological data showing preferential exploitation of red deer complemented by horses and caprids, whereas large bovids and reindeer are a minor component. This study also reveals significant species variability in classifying unidentifiable bones to mammal-size classes. The combination of biomolecular methods and traditional archaeozoology and taphonomy provides a higher resolution of faunal diversity in Palaeolithic assemblages and hominin subsistence behaviour related to carcass transport and seasonality. • First study in Iberia combining ZooMS and archaeozoology for evaluating Palaeolithic subsistence strategies. • ZooMS reveals species variability in archaeozoological mammal-size classification. • Foetal and perinatal bones identified by ZooMS inform about seasonality and hunting strategies. • Collagen deamidation level at La Viña decreases when more protein is preserved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to change the traditional view of the Late Avar belt fittings, which in the 8th century AD delineated an extremely dense communication network within the Carpathian Basin and beyond, by using a groundbreaking combination of iconography, energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), lead isotope analysis, digital morphometry and 3D comparative prototyping. It presents a complex analysis of bronze belt ends decorated with an exceptional scene of a snake eating a frog-like creature, discovered in the last decade in Czech Republic, Hungary and Germany. According to the iconography, this motif represents an important cosmogonic and fertility myth, known to various early medieval populations living in Central Europe. Some of these belt ends come from the same workshop and/or are derived from a common model, even though they were found in very distant regions. The study also focuses on the provenance of the raw material used in the production of Avar-style belt fittings in general. For the first time, it was possible to locate the Early Medieval source of copper in the Slovak Ore Mountains, using lead isotope analysis. • First analytical approach to peculiar belt fittings found in Avar and non-Avar contexts. • Combination of elemental, isotopic and morphometric analyses. • Metal source identified in Slovakian Ore Mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Northern Iberian Plateau during the Early Iron Age witnessed the proliferation of villages, showcasing well-preserved earthen architectural remains that offer valuable insights into past daily life practices. However, the application of high-resolution geoarchaeological approaches to these contexts has been largely overlooked, despite their significance in assessing complex sedimentary sequences predominantly composed of earth-based construction materials. This paper presents the outcomes of a microcontextual geoarchaeological study conducted on earthen dwellings from the Early Iron Age village of Cerro de San Vicente (Salamanca, Northern Iberia). Our study employed soil micromorphology, lipid biomarker analysis, XRD, and XRF analyses to investigate site formation processes, characterize construction materials and techniques, and explore aspects of daily life practices, functionality, and dwelling life histories. Our results have enabled the identification of three distinct construction layers within the dwellings, shedding light on recurrent events of floor use, maintenance, and repaving. Additionally, we have detected periods of abandonment and decay of the earth-based construction material that inform on the dynamics of abandonment and reuse within the village. Furthermore, our analysis has revealed the presence of well-preserved lipid biomarkers throughout the sequences, possibly associated with the past functionality of the dwellings. Ongoing and future analyses will further contribute to our understanding of ancient construction practices and the utilization of domestic spaces at Cerro de San Vicente. This study significantly enhances the limited availability of high-resolution, microcontextual data sets concerning Iron Age contexts in Iberia, underscoring the potential of our approach for future consolidation and advancement. By combining different geoarchaeological methodologies, we demonstrate the importance of integrating diverse analytical techniques to gain comprehensive insights into the socio-cultural dynamics of the Early Iron Age settlements. • Early Iron Age village in Northern Iberia, with numerous earthen dwellings. • Integrated application of soil micromorphology, lipid biomarkers, XRD, and XRF analyses to investigate floor sequences. • Lipid biomarkers are abundant and well-preserved throughout the earthen floor sequences of the dwellings. • Recurrent cycles of use, maintenance and decay are documented within the dwellings. • Relevant microcontextualized data can be obtained from the geoarchaeological characterization of construction layers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Europe, especially the Low Countries, peat was intensively used as a fuel source. Yet, the identification of peat as a fuel source from archaeological combustion residues is challenging. Nevertheless, detecting peat fuel in archaeological contexts would significantly contribute to broader socio-economic questions, such as fuel and landscape management strategies. To achieve this goal, this study developed a new multiproxy approach by combining several analytical methods (light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, analytical pyrolysis, phytolith, faecal spherulite and ash pseudomorphs analyses and micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy) to identify fuel types, predominantly peat, from combustion residues. This methodology was successfully applied to combustion residues discovered at 6 Roman salt production sites situated along the southern North Sea coast. Not only was peat, specifically Sphagnum sp. and Ericaceae peat, identified as the predominant fuel source, but the use of fossil coal as a secondary fuel source could also be hypothesised. This paper demonstrates the high potential of the proposed methodology to identify not only the use of peat in combustion residues, but potentially also the specific type of peat used as well as other fuel sources. • New multiproxy approach to identify peat fuel from archaeological combustion residue. • New insights into fuel management on Roman salt production sites in northern Gaul. • High potential of SEM and analytical pyrolysis to identify amorphous char. • High potential of μXRF to distinguish fuels based on their elemental composition. • Identification of Sphagnum sp., Ericaceae peat, and fossil coal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along the southern North Sea coast, Roman salt production sites are characterised by extensive refuse zones containing large quantities of what has been described as 'salt slags'. These 'salt slags' are in fact amorphous, heavily vitrified waste materials. This is rather surprising since large-scale vitrification has never been associated with the salt production process. In this paper, these materials are for the first time systematically studied macroscopically, mineralogically and geochemically to determine their composition, formation and relation to the salt production process. To achieve these objectives, 30 samples from 7 Roman salt production sites were analysed by combining several analytical methods (thin-section petrography using Polarised Light Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy and X-Ray diffraction). This approach enabled a detailed characterisation of the vitrification process in the waste materials, as well as the identification of high temperature mineral transformations formed in specific (archaeological) conditions. Based on these results, the amorphous waste materials should be interpreted as vitrified hearth base fragments. This study shows that the current interpretations regarding the firing conditions on Roman salt production sites needs major adjustments. In addition, this paper demonstrates the value of geochemical and mineralogical research on discarded waste materials to study poorly understood aspects of not only the salt production process, but artisanal activities in general. • First study of vitrified clay fragments discovered on Roman salt production sites. • Characterisation of the vitrification process in discarded ceramic waste materials. • Identification of high temperature mineral transformations in archaeological finds. • Identification of brine and fuel as external fluxing agents. • New insights into firing conditions of Roman salt production hearths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For over half of a century, ethnoarchaeology has served as an important analytical tool in the development of archaeological theory and the interpretation of human culture. In recent years, with the growth of geoarchaeology as a subdiscipline of archaeological research, scholars have begun to examine contemporary and recent contexts by applying analytical methods from the field of geosciences (e.g., soil micromorphology, mineralogical, elemental, phytolith and isotope analysis) in order to better understand site formation processes and depositional and post-depositional processes. First, this paper explores, as contributions to archaeological sciences, the concept of ethnoarchaeology in general and the emergence of geo-ethnoarchaeology in particular. Second, through examination and synthesis of several key case studies, this paper emphasizes the usefulness of a broad range of laboratory-based analytical methods in linking the archaeological record and human activity. Third, this paper brings together data from recent geo-ethnoarchaeological studies conducted in Africa, South and Central America, Europe and South and West Asia that analyze floor deposits, hearths, degradation of mud houses, use of space, use of plants, animal husbandry and cooking installations. A wealth of information is assembled here to form a reference framework crucial to any study of archaeological materials and sites and for the interpretation of archaeological site formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper approaches, from a computational perspective, the problem of predicting the stature of human skeletal remains from bone measurements. There are traditional methods for constructing models that give good results for stature estimation. In this paper, we aim to investigate the usefulness of using machine learning-based models to approximate stature. Assuming that the stature of an individual is indirectly related to bone measurement values, we can derive methods that learn from archaeological data and construct models that give good estimates of the stature. Two novel machine learning-based regression models for stature estimation are proposed in this paper. Experiments using artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms were performed on samples from the Terry Collection Postcranial Osteometric Database, and the obtained results are discussed and compared with the results from other similar studies. The experimental evaluations indicate that the machine learning-based regression models are efficient for the stature estimation of archaeological remains and highlight the potential of our proposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue examines new trends in phytolith scholarship and assesses the future direction of this field of research. The papers presented represent a broader shift in phytolith research into a new phase called the “Period of Expanding Applications”. It is characterized by 1) a rapid increase in the number of phytolith publications; 2) a diversification of research topics; 3) a reassessment of the use of radiocarbon and other isotopes in phytoliths; 4) the development of digital technologies for refining and sharing phytolith identifications; 5) renewed efforts for standardization of phytolith nomenclature and laboratory protocol; and 6) the development of the field of applied phytolith research. This paper argues that interdisciplinary collaborations and a continued effort to understand the basics of phytolith production patterns are essential for the growth of the discipline and its application in archaeological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As archaeologists continue to be interested in understanding how people encountered and engaged with past landscapes, layering them with social knowledge, it is important to harness geospatial techniques that are not tethered analytically to discrete points and can represent the flow of processes across a whole landscape. This paper explores landscape permeability modeling as one such geospatial approach. Applied archaeologically, permeability modeling examines the degree to which a given landscape, with a specific mix of physical and social variables, was conducive to the movement of people and the flow of social, economic, political, and/or ideological processes. An archaeological case study is presented that uses a resistant-kernel permeability model to examine food storage suitability in an inland lake landscape in northern Michigan during Late Precontact (ca. AD 1100/1200 – 1600) and how people in their intimate, day-to-day, encounters with this landscape understood the storage potential(s) of this matrix. While a specific case is detailed in this paper, the procedures employed are adaptable to other archaeological landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we contest the anthropogenic character of small and shallow charcoal-filled pits which occur in large numbers on Mesolithic sites in the coversand area of the northwest European plain. Despite uncertainties about their exact function, they have so far been generally interpreted as hearth-pits. Following this assumption, these features have been systematically used for dating Mesolithic sites and reconstructing Mesolithic settlement systems. However, chronological inconsistencies as well as the absence of in situ burning evidence call into question this anthropogenic interpretation. Based on anthracological, chronological and pedological evidence from two sites in NW Belgium (Verrebroek and Doel), it is argued that most of these features may be of natural origin. In particular there is good resemblance in morphology, distribution and content with remains of abandoned and burnt ant mounds. The paper ends with highlighting the consequences of this new interpretation, while suggesting new lines of investigation for future Mesolithic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a series of geochemical analysis conducted on 20 bitumen samples from the Neolithic site of Dosariyah (Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia). The aim of this study was to establish the geological origin of this bitumen in order to identify the bitumen seepage they were extracted from. The majority of the samples could be successfully related to bitumen seepages of northern Iraq. Two samples didn't match the bulk of the samples and probably came from the Burgan Hill seepage (Kuwait). Three samples were too badly degraded in order to deliver reliable data, and were removed from the dataset. These conclusions stand in contrast with H3/as-Sabiyah, —a site culturally and geographically linked with Dosariyah— which bitumen came exclusively from the Burgan Hill. In this paper we argue that this difference may be explained by the difference in dating between the two sites, as H3/as-Sabiyah slightly predates Dosariyah. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a conventional, off-the-shelf digital single lens reflex camera and flashes, we were able to create high-resolution panoramas of stratigraphic profiles ranging from a single meter to over 5 m in both height and width at the Middle Stone Age site of PP5-6 at Pinnacle Point, Mossel Bay, South Africa. The final photomosaics are isoluminant, rectilinear, and have a pixel spatial resolution of 1 mm. Furthermore, we systematically color-corrected the raw imagery. This process standardized the colors seen across the photomosaics while also creating reproducible and meaningful colors for relative colorimetric analysis between photomosiacs. Here, we provide a detailed discussion about the creation and application of our photomosaics. In the first part of the paper, we examine the specific characteristics of modern digital single lens reflex (DSLR) cameras and lenses that were important to us in developing our methodology. We also provide a detailed discussion about how to reproduce the methodology in the field and to post-process the imagery. In the final section of the paper, we give several examples to show how we apply our photomosaics within an empirical 3D GIS database. These examples are provided to show how photographic data can be integrated with other digitally-captured data and used to study the relationships between the stratigraphic features seen in the photomosaics and the 3D distribution of excavated archaeological piece-plots, geochronological samples, and other kinds of geological samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the greater part of the last century, anthropogenic palynology has made a sustained contribution to archaeology and to Quaternary science in general, and pollen-analytical papers have appeared in Journal of Archaeological Science since its inception. The present paper focuses selectively upon three areas of anthropogenic palynology, enabling some assessment as to whether the field is advancing: land-use studies, archaeological site study, and modelling. The Discussion also highlights related areas including palynomorph identification and associated proxies. There is little doubt that anthropogenic palynology has contributed to the vitality of pollen analysis in general, and although published research can be replicative or incremental, site- and landscape-based studies offer fresh data for further analysis and modelling. The latter allows the testing of both palynological concepts and inferences and can inform archaeological discovery and imagination. Archaeological site studies are often difficult, but palynology can still offer much to the understanding of occupation sites and the discernment of human behaviour patterns within sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paintings and manuscripts discovered in the sealed ‘library cave’ in Dunhuang, Western China, contain the earliest surviving examples of Tibetan artistic and scribal practice (9th–10th centuries AD). Despite their importance, their material characteristics have not previously been studied. The present paper discusses the results of the analysis of paper and pigments in a selection of items across a variety of forms and functions: (i) Buddhist manuscripts, (ii) official letters, (iii) hung paintings, (iv) ritual items, (v) banners, and (vi) stencils and preliminary sketches. The material analysis of these items is presented in historical context, to address three research questions. First, whether there is a correspondence between the materials used in the creation of these objects and their geographical origin. Second, in terms of the choices made in the available materials and techniques, whether there is a detectable correlation between materials chosen and the intended function of the objects. Third, whether the characteristics of the objects analysed here be considered to be part of a broader Central Asian artistic and scribal culture. The authors conclude that a local culture of paper and pigment production can be detected in these results, though further research is needed especially on the geographical origin of raw materials for pigments. The results show that artists and scribes made technological choices in paper and pigments depending on the function of the objects they were creating. Finally, understanding of the broader Central Asian context of these results will depend on future analysis of material from other archaeological sites, and comparison with the results of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a paper based on recent excavations and analysis of recovered material at the French Middle Paleolithic site of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Rendu et al. (2014) concluded that there is sufficient evidence to support the long-held interpretation that the Neandertal remains found in the bouffia Bonneval locality represents an intentional Neandertal burial. This paper critically examines their data and arguments in relation to criteria that can be used to provide an objective evaluation of such evidence. In each case, the evidence from La Chapelle-aux-Saints either fails to meet these criteria or supports other interpretations equally well. As a result, this site fails to provide unequivocal evidence in support of the notion that Neandertals intentionally interred their dead, whether in any ritualistic or symbolic context or not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we show that a site Kończyce Wielkie 4 (SW Poland) published in JAS (2010a) by Foltyn et al. can no longer be accepted as a reliable evidence for the oldest presence of humans in the northern part of Carpathians and Sudetes Mountains (Matuyama-Brunhes). Unfortunately, in the light of conducted analysis among others with Peacock's method, it seems that the lithics from Kończyce Wielkie appear to be much more similar to geofacts rather than to artefacts. As a background for comparison Lower Paleolithic artefacts from two German sites Wallendorf and Wangen were used. Moreover, the petrological determination of the finds from Kończyce Wielkie is also dubious issue. Foltyn et al. suggested a long distance transport of lithics from several sources. As it has been demonstrated in the paper, local glacial sediments consist of rocks that are analogous to published lithic spectrum. Finally, the geological data shown by Foltyn et al. seem to be incorrect. Authors did not take into account the results concerning the regional geology that indicate clearly much younger age of layers dated by Foltyn et al. (2010a) at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contributions 2014 indicate that research into the study of early agriculture continues to remain a flourishing area of science. We discuss the contribution of the volume's papers and provide a review of how they add to our knowledge about the process to early agriculture, its development and impacts upon the Holocene landscape. The main focus of many of the papers is on the European Neolithic record, with several contributions focussing on research from other regions. Our understanding of the processes happening in Europe is deepening to a level where we have a relatively good understanding of events at a regional level and moving towards understanding at a continental level. This contrasts with other areas of the world where there is still considerable need for intensive primary data collection and where the narrative of agricultural subsistence practices varies considerably. In some regions, existing models of understanding may not be fully adequate and the process of “agriculture” in these areas was likely substantially different to how this occurred in Europe and the Near East. Indeed, it is clear that a more nuanced understanding of how we currently define ‘agriculture’ is necessary. This recognises the diversity of agricultural practises that are evident in different areas of the world, which may be quite removed to what might be recognisable as ‘agriculture’ in places such as Europe. It is evident that the switch from hunter-gatherer subsistence to agro-pastoralism had a huge effect on the Earth system, impacting biodiversity, land cover and the global carbon cycle. Archaeologists have much to contribute towards our knowledge of these impacts and the development of the modern ‘cultural landscape’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents new insights into the appearance of agriculture at the north-western edge of Europe, focussing on archaeobotanical evidence from Neolithic Ireland (4000–2500 cal BC). Previous studies were based upon a limited plant macro-remains dataset, as much of the Irish evidence is unpublished. A research project, 'Cultivating Societies', was implemented to examine the nature, timing and extent of agricultural activity in Neolithic Ireland through collation and analysis of different strands of published and unpublished archaeological and environmental evidence, with a particular focus on plant macro-remains, pollen, settlement and 14 C data. This paper will focus on results of plant macro-remains analyses. Remains from a total of 52 excavated sites were collated and analysed, representing the most comprehensive study to date of Neolithic plant remains from this region. Cereals were present at many locations and site types, sometimes in large quantities and most often at sites dating to the earlier Neolithic (3750–3600 cal BC). Emmer wheat was the dominant crop, at least at this time. Other crops included naked and hulled barley, naked wheat, einkorn wheat and flax. Analysis of arable weeds indicates that early plots were not managed under a shifting cultivation regime, which has new implications for understanding Neolithic settlement practises and how communities engaged with landscapes. The variety of crops cultivated in Neolithic Ireland is similar to that in Britain, reflecting a decreasing diversity in crop types as agriculture spread from south-east to north-west Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colour recording is a crucial aspect of rock art documentation. In this paper, we evaluate different systems to record the colour of rock art and propose a system to describe and communicate it in a reproducible and non-subjective way. Recording and communication of colour in rock art studies, and in general in archaeology, has been treated as dissociated dimensions. Colour rendition charts incorporated into photographic scenes have been used for recording. This process tries to preserve pictures with colours as close as possible to reality. In addition, the use of subjective terms for description and communication of colour has been replaced by the use of standard colour charts (Pantone, Munsell) that are still based on the naked eye observation of the researcher. During recent years, other systems, such as spectroradiometers, colourimeters or mobile platform apps for recording of colour, have been seen as alternatives. Some of these procedures lack internal corroboration or are useful only for recording or only for communication but not for both purposes. That limitation is a contradiction to the basis of colourimetry, the science of colour. The system proposed in this paper contends with the recording and communication of colour in rock art in a comprehensive, reliable and reproducible way, from digital photographic recording to the final communication of colour in publications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A geoarchaeological methodology for studying defensive moats is proposed that localises and reconstructs the evolution and formation processes of archaeological sites in NE Spain. This paper analyses three cases. Firstly, a moat at Puig Pelegrí, an Iberian site (Second Iron Age) where little infill is preserved in the moat, and therefore, the materials removed and deposited when the moat was excavated are analysed. Secondly, the stratigraphy of the infill of a moat at Cabezo de la Cruz (a well preserved site from the First Iron Age) is examined. Thirdly, a moat at Carrassumada (a highly eroded site from the Iberian period in the Second Iron Age) is analysed. The results presented in this paper highlight the importance of sedimentary contexts for understanding human occupation in semi-arid regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates core reduction intensity in the early Protoaurignacian lithic assemblage from Fumane Cave in northeastern Italy. Reduction intensity serves as a key tool to characterize blank selection strategies, raw material management, and the variability of knapping strategies throughout the reduction sequence by reconstructing the operatory field of core assemblages. Finally, it also aids in addressing the relationship between blades and bladelets, providing valuable insights into the behavioral and chrono-cultural significance of laminar productions within the Aurignacian technocomplex. To achieve these research goals, experimental work employing 3D scanning technology was conducted. This facilitated the comparison of different methods and variables for measuring reduction intensity, including the percentage of non-cortical surface, the Scar Density Index (SDI), and a novel adaptation of the Volumetric Reconstruction Method (VRM). Results demonstrate the effectiveness and potential of adapting the VRM for the study of reduction intensity in Upper Paleolithic laminar cores, and the provided R scripts and datasets will enable this method to be applied to other contexts with minimal need for modification to the workflow. Analysis of reduction intensity measures applied to the Protoaurignacian assemblage from Fumane Cave reveals slight variations based on factors such as the abundance and proximity of selected raw materials for blank production. Notably, the most prevalent raw material variety, the Maiolica, yields a higher number of less reduced cores, while reduction levels across all cores discarded at the site remain relatively high. The observed variability in the operatory field and the interrelation between blade and bladelet productions underscore the complexity and flexibility of Protoaurignacian behavior. This inherent complexity challenges any definitive separation between the operatory fields of blade and bladelet productions. These findings are particularly important to emphasize the importance of considering reduction intensity when examining technological variability and human behavior in Aurignacian studies. The proposed adaptation of the VRM and the effective combination with other measures of reduction, promises to allow future research to incorporate reduction intensity as a vital temporal component within studies on stone tool production. This integration offers a pathway to enhancing our understanding of the adaptive behaviors exhibited by Homo sapiens across diverse ecological settings and provides a clearer framework for better framing the development of the Upper Paleolithic. • Tested an adapted version of the VRM on blade & bladelet cores using experimental knapping and 3D scanning technology. • VRM effective with laminar core types, enhanced by methods like the SDI for comprehensive reduction intensity insights. • VRM & SDI used to explore raw material, core classification, and blank production in the Protoaurignacian from Fumane cave. • Results highlight challenges in separating the operatory fields of blade & bladelet productions in the Protoaurignacian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we reported the results obtained from toxicological investigations on bone samples collected from human remains of the 17th century in Milano (Italy). The aim of this study was to search for analytical signs of the administration of medical or recreative plants in the population of Milano during the 17th century. Nine femoral bone samples were extracted via Solid-Phase Extraction and analyzed via Thermo Scientific™ TSQ Fortis™ II Triple-Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer. As a result, archeotoxicological analyses revealed the presence of two cannabinoids (Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol) of the cannabis plant present in two out of nine bone samples (that correspond to 22% of the biological samples analyzed). The presence of these two alkaloids evidences the use of the cannabis plant in the Italian population during the 17th century. The documentation related to the pharmacopeia used to treat patients in the Ca' Granda is still present in the archives of the hospital. However, this plant was not listed inside the pharmacopeia, suggesting that the plant was not administered as medical treatment at the time in the hospital. Thus, we hypothesize that the subjects under investigation used cannabis as a recreational substance, although other sources of exposure, such as self-medication, administration as a medical plant by other doctors outside of the Ca' Granda, occupational and involuntary exposure, cannot be excluded. In conclusion, this study reports the first physical evidence of cannabis use in Modern Age in Italy but also in Europe. • Toxicological analyses on archaeological human remains. • Findings of Delta-9-THC and CBD in bone samples of 17th century. • Likely recreational use of cannabis plant in 1600's. • Archaeotoxicology a new scientific discipline in the field of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]