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Graphical abstract Highlights • Sediments from Haima cold seeps have variable compositions. • AOM caused high δ34S CRS and low δ13C TIC values, and high CRS contents. • AOM indicators of sediments are variable under variable methane flux and duration. • Three methane release events were identified in the seep site. Abstract Cold seeps frequently occur at the seafloor along continental margins. The dominant biogeochemical processes at cold seeps are the combined anaerobic oxidation of methane and sulfate reduction, which can significantly impact the global carbon and sulfur cycles. The circulation of methane-rich fluids at margins is highly variable in time and space, and assessing past seepage activity requires the use of specific geochemical markers. In this study, we report multiple sedimentary proxy records for three piston gravity cores (QDN-14A, QDN-14B, and QDN-31) from the Haima seep of the South China Sea (SCS). By combining total organic carbon (TOC), total inorganic carbon (TIC), total nitrogen (TN), total sulfur (TS), acid insoluble carbon and sulfur isotope (δ13C organic carbon and δ34S acid-insoluble), and δ34S values of chromium reducibility sulfur (δ34S CRS), as well as carbon isotopes of TIC (δ13C TIC) in sediments, our aim was to provide constraints on methane seepage dynamics in this area. We identified three sediment layers at about 260–300 cm, 380–420 cm and 480–520 cm sediment depth, characterized by particular anomalies of low δ13C TIC values and high TS content, high TS and CRS contents, and high δ34S acid-insoluble and δ34S CRS values, respectively. On this basis, we propose that these sediment horizons correspond to distinct methane release events preserved in the sediment record. While the exact mechanisms accounting for the presence (or absence) of these particular geochemical signals in the sediment are not known, we propose that they correspond to variations in methane flux and their duration through time. Overall, our results suggest that sedimentary carbon and sulfur and their isotopes are useful tracers for better understanding of methane seepage dynamics over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • δ34S of pyrite in seep carbonates from Site F and Haima were investigated. • Mo, As, Sb contents and Sr/Ca, Mg/Ca ratios reveal variable redox conditions. • Pyrites in calcite have more positive δ34S values than aragonite at seeps. • The variable δ34S values are useful to assess the intensities of past seepages. Abstract Authigenic carbonates and pyrite associated with sulfate-driven anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) at methane seeps provide archives to explore the biogeochemical processes involved and seepage dynamics over time. The wide range and extremely high δ34S values of pyrite (δ34S py) have been used to trace the AOM-related processes. However, the detailed mechanism for this phenomenon is not well understood. We propose that the characteristics of δ34S py were mainly controlled by the competition between sulfate reduction and sulfate supply, as well as the redox condition. To test this hypothesis, we investigated Sr/Ca and Mg/Ca ratios, trace element compositions, pyrite contents and sulfur isotopic compositions in seep carbonates from Site F and Haima in the northern South China Sea. Calcite and aragonite contents were distinguished through the Sr/Ca and Mg/Ca ratios. The data show that aragonites are always associated with relatively low δ34S py values compared to calcites. The Mo contents show a good correlation with pyrite contents in calcites and aragonites, and the slope in aragonites is larger than that in calcites. This relationship indicates that the aragonite precipitated in a relatively open system with higher Mo availability. Thus, we conclude that sulfides with low δ34S values formed at high supply of sulfate under the relatively open system with respect to diffusive replenishment of sulfate, where the carbonate precipitation occurred close to the seafloor due to a strong methane flux. Under vigorous methane flux simultaneously, the high potential of less anoxic conditions, which could limit the additional pyrite accumulation and/or favor the microbial disproportionation, could also be the cause of the low δ34S py , as supported by samples from the Haima sites. Evidence for this assumption is based on the occurrence of bivalve shells and less enrichment in As and Sb. Conversely, the positive δ34S py values result from near to complete exhaustion of dissolve sulfate via AOM within a deeper sulfate-methane transition zone, where Mo is less available. The combination of a detailed elemental study of authigenic carbonates with sulfur isotopic composition of sulfide minerals in carbonates is a promising tool for reconstructing the dynamics of seep intensities at modern and, potentially, geological seep sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Lipid biomarker patterns of active Haima seep carbonates were studied. • UCM in seep carbonate reflects the presence of crude oil at Haima seeps. • The predominant consortia in carbonates from both sites were ANME-1/DSS. • Methane seepage was at least intermittently more intense at site ROV2 than at ROV1. Abstract Authigenic carbonates retrieved from sites ROV1 and ROV2 of the Haima hydrocarbon seeps of the South China Sea at approximately 1390 m water depth were studied using lipid biomarker analyses. Abundant molecular fossils of anaerobic methane oxidizing archaea (ANME) and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) with strong 13C-depletions (δ13C values as low as −126‰), in combination with low δ13C carbonate values (−42.7‰ to −36.8‰), provide evidence that anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) was the major process driving the precipitation of the studied seep carbonates. The extremely low δ13C values of archaeal biomarkers confirm that biogenic methane was the main carbon source, but the seepage of accessory crude oil is also suggested by the presence of unresolved complex mixtures in the hydrocarbon fractions. A suite of 13C-depleted biomarkers indicate the predominance of ANME-1/ DSS consortia at both sites, which indicates that the studied carbonates formed during low to medium methane flux. Somewhat higher contents of archaeal biomarkers and their stronger 13C-depletion at site ROV2 probably reflect at least temporarily higher seepage intensities than at site ROV1. Abundant bacterial dialkyl glycerol diethers (DAGEs), revealing a large offset of their δ13C values compared to SRB-derived terminally branched fatty acids, were possibly produced by distinct SRB species other than members of the DSS cluster. The encountered hopanoids are attributed to aerobic methanotrophic bacteria based on their moderate 13C-depletion. The application of molecular fossils in combination with their compound-specific isotope signatures is an efficient tool to reconstruct the composition of seepage fluids and seepage intensities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sediments at marine methane seep sites provide potential archives of past fluid flow that serve to explore seepage activities over time. Three gravity cores (D-8, D-F, and D-7) were collected from seep sites on the northern slope of the South China Sea where gas hydrates were drilled in the subsurface. Various carbon and sulfur contents, δ 13 C values of total inorganic carbon (δ 13 C TIC ), δ 34 S values of chromium reducible sulfur (δ 34 S CRS ), trace element contents, grain size, and AMS 14 C dating of planktonic Foraminifera in the sediments were determined to explore the availability of related proxies at seeps and to trace past methane seepage activities. Evidence for the presence of methane seepage and consequently anaerobic oxidation of methane comes from the occurrence of 13 C-depleted authigenic carbonate nodules (δ 13 C values as low as −49‰) discovered at an interval of 150–200 cm in core D-7. This finding is supported by high S/C ratios and molybdenum enrichment in the same interval. However, low contents of CRS and negative δ 34 S CRS values are present. It is suggested to reflect a transient methane seepage event, which continued for about 1 ka based on the 14 C ages. Cores D-8 and D-F have δ 13 C TIC values close to zero, low S/C ratios and CRS contents, negative δ 34 S CRS values, and no trace element enrichment, suggesting a negligible impact of methane-seepage on the sediments. The negative δ 34 S CRS values of the studied seep-impacted and background sediments suggest that the application of δ 34 S CRS alone as a proxy to identify AOM-related process may be insufficient. Sediment carbon-sulfur-trace element systematics and 14 C ages used here have the potential to be a promising tool to recognize transient methane seepages and constrain their timescales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]