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Aim Moose, Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758), survived the European Pleistocene glaciations in multiple southern refugia, in a northern refugium near the Carpathians and possibly in other locations. During the second millennium ad, moose were nearly extirpated in Europe and only recolonized their current range after World War II. The number and location of refugia during the Pleistocene and recent population lows may have affected the current genetic diversity. We sought to characterize the genetic diversity in European moose in order to determine its genetic structure and the location of genetic hotspots as a way of inferring its population history and the number of Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM) refugia. Location Europe. Methods We sequenced 538 nucleotides from the mitochondrial control region of 657 moose from throughout the species' European range. We estimated diversity within and among 16 sampling localities, and used samova to cluster sampling locations into subpopulations. We constructed phylogenetic trees and median-joining networks to examine systematic relationships, and conducted Bayesian analysis of the coalescent and used mismatch distributions and approximate Bayesian computation to infer demographic history. Results Estonia had the highest nucleotide diversity, and western Belarus had the highest haplotype diversity. We observed four regional populations from the samova analysis. We found three haplogroups in European moose, probably representing lineages conserved in different refugia during the Pleistocene. European moose underwent spatial expansion after the LGM, but did not undergo demographic expansion. The effective population size has declined markedly within the last 2000 years. Main conclusions The current levels and distribution of genetic diversity in European moose indicate the effects both of Pleistocene glaciations and of a recent bottleneck, probably associated with anthropogenic influences such as pastoralization and hunting, and a very recent re-expansion. We show that both historical and recent events can influence the diversity and distribution of a large mammal on a large scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Climate changes in the past had a deep impact on the evolutionary history of many species and left genetic signatures that are often still detectable today. We investigated the geographical pattern of mitochondrial DNA diversity in the European wild boar ( Sus scrofa). Our final aims were to clarify the influence of present and past climatic conditions, infer the geographical position of glacial refugia, and suggest post-glacial spatial dynamics. Location Europe. Methods D-loop sequences were obtained for 763 individuals from Portugal to western Russia. Phylogenetic, multivariate and interpolation methods were used to describe the genetic and geographical patterns. Climatic suitability during the Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM) was predicted using MaxEnt. The effect of present and past suitability on the observed patterns of diversity was evaluated by multiple linear regression. Results We confirmed the existence of a ubiquitous mitochondrial clade in Europe (E1), an endemic clade in Italy (E2) and a few East Asian haplotypes (A), presumably introgressed from domestic pigs. No Near Eastern haplotypes were detected. Genetic divergence was not simply related to geographical distance. A clear south-north decreasing gradient of diversity was observed, with maximum levels in putative glacial refugia. Latitudinal variation in climatic conditions during the LGM was shown to be a good predictor of current genetic diversity. Moreover, an unexpected similarity between Iberia and eastern Europe was observed, while central European populations showed a higher affinity to the Italian gene pool. Main conclusions The current distribution of mitochondrial genetic diversity was highly influenced by past climatic events, especially those related to the LGM, and is consistent with a major contribution of the Italian peninsula and the Balkans to the post-glacial recolonization of northern areas. More recent processes, such as restocking and extensive hunting, probably acted at rather local scales, without great impact on the global pattern of mitochondrial diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]