Search

Non-optimal early childhood development adversely affects educational attainment, productivity, and income, and may result in inter-generational cycles of non-optimal development and poverty. Optimal development requires multiple inputs including a stimulating environment and responsive care. Given the interest in being able to monitor, at a global level, children's exposure to positive and stimulating home environments, this paper aims to evaluate the suitability of the Family Care Indicators for this purpose. We review existing research about the features of home environments that are most important for supporting optimal early childhood development and how these features have been measured, with attention to the Family Care Indicators that have several distinct advantages for global monitoring. We report on several analyses using data from multi-country Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys that address the validity and international comparability of the Family Care Indicators. We conducted these analyses using correlations and item response theory models to examine validity and cross-country equivalence. Based on prior studies that established validity of Family Care Indicators and on analyses reported in this paper, the items on early stimulation and responsive care from the set of Family Care Indicators will provide a valid and cross-country equivalent measure to monitor the percentage of young children experiencing positive and stimulating home environments. Additional work examining relationships between the Family Care Indicators and child development measures would further establish predictive validity. Highlights: Optimal child development requires multiple inputs including a positive and stimulating home environment. Global monitoring of the provision of positive and stimulating home environments is important for tracking progress. Assessment of the home environment can provide valuable information on support for early child development and learning. The Family Care Indicators were valid and cross-context equivalent for the purpose of global monitoring of countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parents' engagement in playing and learning is important for children's development. Insufficient engagement of parents in such activities, however, has been reported in low- and middle-income countries. Additionally, there is evidence documenting that the extent of paternal stimulation is often much lower than that of maternal stimulation. The underlying reasons for such a difference, including those linked to levels of gender stratification or inequality within a society, have yet to be fully explored. Employing a cross-sectional analysis of a sample of 47 low- and middle-income countries with data between 2011 and 2016, the paper investigates the extent to which predictors linked to gender stratification theory influence the extent of parental stimulation with children in the home, and differences in maternal and paternal engagement. The analysis included seven country-level variables that are related to gender stratification in society as well as one country-level control variable (gross domestic product [GDP] per capita). Parental stimulation was measured in terms of the percentage of children aged 24–59 months whose mother or father engaged in certain activities such as singing or reading with them in the past 3 days. The analysis revealed that in all 47 countries, young children were more likely to receive stimulating care from their mothers than their fathers. On average, 34.7% of young children received four or more stimulating activities from their mothers compared to only 14.1% from their fathers. The results also showed that gender stratification in a society, especially within the economic, political, and reproductive autonomy domains, influences the proportion of children whose mothers/fathers were engaged in stimulating activities. Such factors, however, do not necessarily determine both parents' behaviors in the direction expected by gender stratification theory. Highlights: Cross-national analysis to examine differences in maternal and paternal engagement based on predictors linked to gender stratification theory. Young children were more likely to receive stimulating care from their mothers than their fathers. Gender equality in labor participation, political participation and educational attainment led to more active parenting engagement by both mothers and fathers, but more so by mothers. The existence of maternity leave policies in the absence of paternity leave policies was associated with a smaller proportion of actively engaged fathers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has repeatedly shown the positive effects of early diagnosis and intervention in improving the quality of life and symptom trajectory of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Immigrant and racial/ethnic minority children are diagnosed with ASD at significantly older ages, and have access to interventions later than their White peers. Recent efforts to address diagnostic disparities have focused on universal ASD screening in pediatric primary care. However, little is known about immigrant families' experiences with ASD screening and with navigating subsequent referrals after receiving a positive ASD screen. In the current study, we explored cultural influences on: mothers' perceptions of child development and disability, communication with pediatric healthcare providers, and perceived benefits of Early Intervention services. We interviewed 26 mothers (14 US-born and 12 immigrant—representing twelve different nationalities) of children who screened positively for ASD in primary care but did not receive an ASD diagnosis after a formal evaluation (i.e., false positive ASD screen). Mothers completed semi-structured qualitative interviews that explored their perceptions of child development, experiences with the ASD screening and developmental evaluation process, and experiences with developmental services. Data were stratified by U.S. nativity and analyzed using applied thematic analysis. Immigrant mothers described different ways of monitoring child development than US-born mothers, and described a mismatch between their own views and the child development frameworks used in the U.S. Due to this mismatch, immigrant parents may be less likely to raise concerns to their pediatricians, and therefore may particularly benefit from routine screening. This paper uses data from a supplemental study to a larger clinical trial. The clinical trial registration number is NCT02359084. Highlights: Immigrant families view child development as a process that unfolds uniquely for each child, therefore, monitoring development through milestones can be a new idea for culturally diverse families. Immigrant children with elevated risk for ASD may be at higher risk for later identification of developmental delays if they are not screened at their well-child visits. Culturally and linguistically accessible explanations of child development and disabilities can help immigrant families throughout the ASD screening process. Immigrant families emphasize benefiting from family navigation and logistical support during the developmental evaluation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides a rigorous assessment of a community-based early child development (ECD) intervention to understand the drivers of caregivers' reading and playing practices in a low-resourced township in South Africa. Mentors visited 157 homes biweekly (2474 observations from 2019–21; children ages 0–5), completing surveys regarding caregiver behaviors and engagement. One hundred and fifty-seven caregivers (mostly Black, Zulu women) participated in the program during this time period and completed surveys biannually on their support system (modified version of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Support) and ECD beliefs (modified versions of the Parental Play Beliefs Scale and the Parent Opinion Survey). Longitudinal Hierarchical Linear Model revealed that several behaviors and beliefs significantly predicted positive parenting behaviors. Regression discontinuity plots suggest that positive parenting behaviors could continue and even improve following Covid-19 shutdowns, especially in homes with more intervention visits. This paper provides translational evidence on tangible ways interventions can engage caregivers in stimulating ECD behaviors. Highlights: This study analyzes data from a South African ECD intervention targeting caregiver reading and playing practices through a relational home-visitation program. Caregiver engagement was the changeable individual difference that best predicted caregiver reading and playing behaviors. Time in the program, social support, and hope that children will have a better future significantly predicted caregiver reading and playing behaviors. Participants who were in the program for over a year before the pandemic were best able to sustain positive beliefs of child development after the shutdown. Caregiver involvement and reading and playing improved even after the pandemic shutdown, especially in homes that had more intervention visits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiracial youth experience social-psychological challenges that differ qualitatively from those that their parents encounter, and there is evidence to suggest that these experiences negatively affect development. Therefore, it is particularly important to consider what parent behaviors youth may find supportive of their experiences as multiracial individuals. In this article, we aim to center multiracial youth's lived experiences in the racial-ethnic socialization literature, given the disproportionate attention that has been paid to parent reports of socialization behaviors. We use the critical multiracial theory as a framework to describe two overlapping, albeit distinct, constructs in parenting of multiracial youth, racial-ethnic socialization and familial support of multiracial experiences, and we highlight the importance of integrating these constructs in future research and in applied work. First, to contextualize the need for understanding familial support around race-related issues in multiracial families, we describe common social-psychological challenges that multiracial youth face. Then, we review recent evidence of different types of racial-ethnic socialization and familial support of multiracial experiences to demonstrate the importance of integrating these two emerging lines of inquiry for a more holistic understanding of the role of family support in multiracial youth development. We conclude the paper with directions for future research and recommendations for multiracial families and practitioners who work with these families to promote healthy development in the growing population of multiracial children. Highlights: Parents play a vital role in supporting multiracial youth's development in the context of the monocentric U.S. society. Racial socialization (RES) and familial support of multiracial experiences (FSME) are distinct constructs. Examination of both RES and FSME are important to promote multiracial youth's healthy development. Scholars should study how parents teach about race and support multiracial youth to center multiracial youth's experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Innovative interventions accessible to at-risk populations to prevent the intergenerational cycle of toxic stress are needed. This paper describes the iterative development of a community-based intervention, 2Gen Thrive, which was designed to prevent toxic stress and promote resilience by improving caregiver capacity to respond to children’s emotional, behavioral, and developmental needs. 2Gen Thrive leverages the collaboration between a Children’s Hospital and an Early Head Start/Head Start education center to help low-income, minority families thrive in the context of risk factors for toxic stress. In this paper, we focus on the process of developing, piloting, and refining our 2Gen Thrive preventive intervention research program, which has been developed following a community-based participatory research (CBPR) approach. The primary objective was to pilot test two prevention interventions we adapted for use in this target population: Classroom Theraplay, a classroom-wide intervention designed to prevent toxic stress among children exposed to adversity by fostering nurturing relationships with their teachers; and Dialectical Behavior Therapy Skills Training for Parents (DBT4P), a group intervention developed to bolster parental responsiveness by teaching Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) mindfulness and emotion regulation skills. We evaluated qualitative and process data as well as quantitative data from standardized instruments, including The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), and Parenting Stress Index (PSI/SF). Results demonstrate the feasibility, acceptability, and appropriateness of these preventive interventions delivered in the early education setting, and of conducting intervention research using a CBPR approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children from families with low income are at an increased risk of developmental delays. While early interventions are effective in supporting the development of these children, families with low income often face barriers to accessing suitable interventions. The aim of this paper was to apply a participatory codevelopment process to produce a tool adapted for families with low income that informs parents about early child development and strengthens their capacity to create a stimulating learning environment at home. The objectives were to identify 1) the prioritized needs for parental information (tool content) and 2) the most appropriate format to reach our target population (tool format). Parents, pediatric healthcare professionals, community workers, managers and scientific advisers participated in a two-phase consensus-seeking process (Technique of Research of Information by Animation of a Group of Experts (TRIAGE)) to reach an agreement regarding the tool content and format. The participants unanimously decided to present information about red flags, referral sources, support resources and autonomy development strategies in an original, appealing, and accessible format of a life-size growth chart. The developed tool, named Roots to Bloom, can be used in primary healthcare and community settings to support interventions aimed at preventing developmental delays. This study reinforced the effectiveness of the TRIAGE method in enabling a group of stakeholders to reach a consensus. Highlights: Optimally, tools to support child development should be developed to be accessible to all families. The TRIAGE method is effective in enabling a heterogeneous group of stakeholders to reach a consensus. Parents may benefit from strategies to foster the development of their children's autonomy as part of their daily routines. Parents concerned about their children's development may benefit from information to navigate healthcare systems. Strategies to promote research participation among families with low income are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a quantitative evaluation of a group-based programme designed to promote parent-infant attachment and child development. Whilst group-based parenting programmes are recommended for treating and preventing conduct disorder in older children, there is, as yet, little evidence as to whether they have a positive effect on very young children and their carers'. Recent UK Government initiatives to support families and improve parenting skills in the first 2 years of children's lives have increased the demand for the delivery and evaluation of community-based programmes. Eighty mother-child dyads were recruited from nine areas to intervention (n = 54) and control condition (n = 26). Baseline measures were collected in the children's home when the infants were on average 3-months-old, and follow-up measures were collected 6 months post-baseline (N = 63). Mothers' positive play behaviours were independently coded from video recordings taken in the home. Other measures included self-reported maternal confidence and mental well-being, assessed infant development and home environment. Socio-demographic data was collected once at baseline. After controlling for baseline scores, control mothers were observed to be significantly less sensitive during play with their baby at the 6 months follow-up with a significant increase in confidence. No differences were found between the groups on the other measures. This paper provides limited evidence for the effectiveness of the Incredible Years Parents and Babies group-based programme delivered in the first year of life. Further evaluation, particularly with parents at increased risk of poorer outcomes is needed to confirm and extend these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mindful parenting programs, providing mindfulness training for parents and caregivers, have been gaining increasing attention in recent years. Parents participating in these programs have reported benefits in emotional awareness, listening, and parent-child relationships at post-intervention. Considering that many mindful parenting programs aim to train parents generally, rather than specifically targeting parents of clinic-referred or diagnosed children, it is necessary to ascertain the impact of these programs in non-clinical, community samples. In the present qualitative review, databases were searched for studies that reported on children's outcomes following mindful parenting programs for parents of typically developing children without clinical diagnoses. A synthesis of selected papers (n = 6) demonstrated promising but limited impact of mindful parenting programs on children's psychosocial functioning. Differences emerged across programs in themes and mindfulness elements covered. Results demonstrate a need for more rigorous and multi-informant research on the preventative implications of mindful parenting programs in non-clinical contexts for child functioning. Highlights: Mindful parenting programs (MPPs) for community parents are numerous and variable. MPPs may have a promising impact on community children, but more research is needed. Multi-informant assessments of MPPs are needed to confirm preventive effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Accumulating research provides support for differential susceptibility, which holds that the same children who are most vulnerable to adversity, such as negative parenting, may also benefit most from enriched environments, such as positive parenting. This "for better and for worse" phenomenon is believed to be rooted in endogenous, biological susceptibility factors such as genes, and cognitive and physiological endophenotypes (e.g., heart rate variability and skin conductance). The goal of this paper is to discuss the effect of this biological perspective on children's susceptibility, and the inclusion of genetic and endophenotypical data in parenting research to shed light on the differential effects of parenting behavior We discuss a number of conceptual and methodological issues related to prior studies that have aimed to assess this. Methods: We review and discuss current and future perspectives on children's genetic- and endophenotype-based differential susceptibility to parenting, and experimental study designs that can adequately assess the within-person phenomenon of differential susceptibility. Results: We summarize our call for research in an experimental paradigm to test children's gene- and endophenotype-based differential susceptibility to parenting in their development of externalizing behavior. Conclusions: Hereby we aim to advance our understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying children's differential susceptibility to negative and positive parenting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-compassion, which refers to the tendency of being kind and understanding to oneself when confronted with personal failings and difficulties, is increasingly investigated as a protective factor within the context of mental health problems. In this invited paper, I will briefly introduce the concept of self-compassion and give an overview of the research that has examined its relationship with psychopathology in youth. Then I will make my critical point regarding the assessment of self-compassion: the scales that are currently used for measuring this construct include a large number of reversely scored, negative items that measure the precise opposite of having compassion with oneself. I present evidence (partly on the basis of own data) that these negative items do not reflect the true protective nature of self-compassion and tend to inflate the relation with psychopathology. My recommendation is to remove the negative items from the scales and to assess self-compassion by means of a set of items that truly reflect its protective nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opioid abuse is now considered an epidemic, and many of the adults using this substance are parents. The purpose of the current paper is twofold: (1) to review rigorously conducted studies (e.g., included a comparison group; utilized inferential statistics) examining the association of opioid abuse with parenting and child outcomes, and (2) to review parenting intervention programs with these caregivers. Findings indicate that there are very few rigorously conducted studies examining children and parenting when parents abuse opioids. Furthermore, only four intervention programs have been conducted using randomized control trials and inferential statistics. We conclude that there is limited research that can be labeled as a rigorous science currently addressing this aspect of the opioid epidemic. Recommendations for further research are delineated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-regulation includes the ability to control one's behavior as needed to meet social expectations and is associated with adaptive developmental outcomes. One tool for self-regulation is private speech; however, research has not examined if children's private speech is consistent across cognitively-focused and emotionally-focused contexts and if it is associated with regulatory abilities in similar ways. The goal of this study was to investigate relations between children's private speech and their regulation in three contexts with varying emotional and cognitive demands with children's age examined as a moderator of the association of private speech to regulation. Preschool-aged children's (n = 122) private speech (vocalizations, inaudible muttering, task-irrelevant, negatively valenced, and facilitative) was transcribed and coded in three contexts: selective attention where children matched pictures according to certain rules, emotion regulation where children's persistence in attempting to overcome an obstacle to achieve a goal was observed, and inhibitory control where the children were instructed to wait to color. Using linear mixed modeling, private speech did not significantly predict children's regulatory abilities in the selective attention task; however, meaningful associations were found between private speech and regulation in the emotion regulation and inhibitory control contexts. Furthermore, age moderated the association of private speech to regulation in the inhibitory control context. Our findings that associations between private speech and regulation outcomes differed across contexts highlight the importance of examining self-regulation as a multidimensional construct and emphasize the importance of considering both cognitive and emotional demands for supporting children's optimal self-regulation. Highlights: Preschoolers' private speech was associated with their regulation in emotion regulation and inhibitory control contexts. Associations between private speech and regulation differed across different regulatory contexts. It is important to emphasize both cognitive and emotional demands when investigating children's regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research suggests that parental reflective functioning (PRF)—that is, the parent's capacity to envision the mind of the child—is a key factor in understanding the child's reflective capacities. Yet, most existing measures of PRF assume that it is a broad trait-like feature. This study investigated cross-sectional relationships between domain-specific PRF, operationalized as mothers' estimates of the Theory of Mind (ToM) capacities of their children (mother's ToM estimates; MTE), and ToM acquisition in 83 preschool children, using a multidimensional approach. Results showed that the accuracy of MTE was positively related to the children's capacity for ToM, while the degree of certainty of inaccurate MTE was negatively related to ToM acquisition. The implications of these findings for the conceptualization of PRF and its relationship to ToM and other features of social cognition in children are discussed. Highlights: Theory of Mind (ToM) and parental reflective functioning (PRF) are multidimensional constructs. Associations among PRF and ToM acquisition are domain-specific. Inaccuracy of mother's ToM estimates (MTE) hampers ToM development in their children. Higher certainty with regard to inaccurate MTE is associated with lower child ToM performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most children and adolescents older than 5 years spend at least 6 h of their day in school settings. Like parents, education professionals can promote health and protect youth from harm by providing safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has developed a framework which posits that safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments are Essentials for Childhood and are fundamental to promoting health and well-being; protecting youth from maltreatment and other violence and victimization; and ensuring optimal, healthy development. In this paper, the authors propose an approach to applying safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments to the school ecology; review select survey measures to examine these constructs within educational settings; and suggest available indicators to measure safety, stability, and nurturance within the school context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We systematically reviewed the evidence for the efficacy and effectiveness of brief parenting interventions, defined as <8 sessions in duration, in reducing child externalizing behaviors. While there is significant evidence to support the efficacy of parenting interventions of 8-12 sessions in duration, the public health benefit of these interventions is limited by low participation rates, high attrition rates and the lack of implementation by a wide range of practitioners. Brief parenting interventions have the potential to extend the reach and impact of parenting interventions and steer children away from a trajectory of life course persistent behavior problems. A search of four electronic databases was undertaken to identify RCTs conducted on brief parenting interventions. The primary outcome was child externalizing behaviors and secondary outcomes included parenting skills, parental self-efficacy, parental mental health and partner relationship functioning. The heterogeneity of included studies prevented a meta-analysis but characteristics of the studies were described. Nine papers summarising the results of eight studies with 836 families in five countries met inclusion criteria. All studies found significant improvements in parent-rated child externalizing behaviors, parenting skills and parenting self-efficacy, relative to control or comparison groups, with findings maintained at follow-up. Less consistent findings emerged for parental mental health and partner relationship functioning. This review provides initial evidence that brief parenting interventions may be sufficient to reduce child externalizing behavior problems for some families, however further research is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship between father involvement and their child's behaviour outcomes amongst a birth cohort of Pacific children and fathers in New Zealand. A birth cohort was established in 2000 from births at Middlemore Hospital in South Auckland where at least one parent was identified as being of Pacific ethnicity and a New Zealand permanent resident. This included 1,376 mothers, 825 fathers, and 1,398 children at baseline. At the 6-years measurement wave, father involvement was measured using the Inventory of Father Involvement, and child behaviour measured using the Child Behaviour Check-list. Internalising and externalising behaviour was related to father involvement in crude and adjusted logistic regression and generalised estimating equation models. 571 Pacific fathers participated at the 6-years measurement wave; most of Samoan (42.9 %) or Tongan (33.5 %) ethnic identification. Overall, 190 (32.1 %) children exhibited clinical or border-line internalising and externalising behaviour. Self-reported father involvement was generally high, but lower involvement was significantly related to increased odds of internalising [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) approximately 1.9, p < 0.001] and externalising (aOR approximately 4.0, p < 0.001) behaviour. Father involvement was significantly associated with child behaviour in Pacific families within New Zealand. Strategies that promote and enable increased father involvement may reduce negative child outcomes amongst Pacific families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deleterious impact of parental substance abuse on child development and family functioning is well established. However, evaluations of interventions designed to ameliorate such impacts are very limited. This paper presents the results of a service evaluation using a pre-post design of the Supporting Kids And Their Environment (SKATE) program; a child-focused group program run by Glastonbury Community Services from 2006 to 2010 in the Geelong region of Victoria, Australia. The intervention was an 8-week psycho-educative model that used family-based techniques. Outcomes are reported for child behavior problems, assessed on the Child Behavior Checklist, and family functioning, assessed on the Family Support Scale. A total of 89 children and families within 13 intervention groups were recruited via adult Drug and Alcohol Services (Mean age = 10.4 years; SD = 2.4). Results suggest reductions in emotional and behavioral problems in children as well as improving family functioning with small to moderate effect sizes after children's participation in the SKATE program compared to pre-test. These preliminary findings suggest that children whose parents are substance abusing are a high-risk group but they may benefit from targeted intervention programs that are well integrated with the adult drug treatment system. Such interventions warrant further development and evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a dearth of research examining what parents in MENA region know about children's brain development and the type of activities they engage their young children at home to promote their cognitive development. This article describes and compares the views and behaviors of parents with children 0–6 years old from Casablanca, Morocco, the US, and the UK on early parental engagement. Seventy-eight Moroccan parents were compared to 1066 US/UK parents. The study utilizes survey data and explores parents' understanding of and support for their children's early cognitive development. Results reveal that more than fifty percent of Moroccan parents do not see themselves as having an impact on brain development until after the first year of their child's life compared to 10% of US parents, in part because they believe that babies' capacity for learning in the earliest years is limited. Yet Moroccan parents reported higher frequencies of teaching their young children letters and numbers and reading a book to them than US parents. These differences in at-home teaching practices may reflect the higher percentage of US/UK children who participate in early learning programs outside their own homes; such programs are not culturally accepted in Morocco. The belief that there is little capacity for learning in children's earliest years among Moroccan parents may minimize parents' motivation to function as their child's first teacher in the absence of early education programs. Policy implications and interventions are discussed concerning ways to change parents' knowledge and beliefs to motivate early learning activities. Highlights: Moroccan parents view themselves as having limited impact on their children's cognitive development in the early years compared to US parents. Moroccan parents reported higher frequencies of teaching their young children numbers and reading compared to UK parents. Sending very young children to early education centers is less acceptable in Morocco than in the US/UK. Moroccan parents turn to their extended family more than US parents do for guidance on child-rearing. Interventions should be culturally relevant and target sources to whom parents turn for support; home visits are promising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly 5.5 million children between the ages of 0–5 in the US have at least one immigrant parent, and 22% of these children live below the poverty line. Emerging research highlights the importance of examining the neighborhood- and parenting-level risks and resources that are most impactful for young children of immigrants' social development. Using a subsample of 3–5-year-old children (N = 1134) from the National Survey of Children's Health (CAHMI, 2018), this study tested a conceptual model of cross-level interactions between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES), behavior problems and flourishing in young children who have at least one foreign-born parent. Structural equation modeling results suggested an indirect effect of neighborhood SES on child flourishing and behavioral problems through neighborhood- (collective efficacy, resources) and parent-level characteristics (mental health, aggravation, parent-child interaction). The relations between neighborhood structure and child outcomes were fully mediated by parenting. Specifically, disadvantages in neighborhood structure had significant direct effects on parental mental health, parenting aggravation, and parent-child interaction, which explained relations between neighborhood structure and child outcomes. Results point to future research areas and potential policy and prevention interventions at neighborhood and parental levels. Highlights: Analysis of a subsample of preschool-aged children of immigrants from the National Survey of Children's Health. Integrates two key ecologies – neighborhoods and homes – to model effects of financial strain on children of immigrants. Financial strain contributed to neighborhood disadvantage, which then negatively impacted immigrant parents and parenting. Findings suggest children of immigrants' flourishing and behavior is the product of interactions between neighborhood- and parent-level characteristics. Addressing neighborhood disadvantage effects and supporting immigrant parents could support optimal child development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine the possible reciprocal associations between supportive parenting and children's social skills, the present study tested three cross-lagged models in 305 Chinese preschool children: the parent-driven model, the child-driven model, and the reciprocal model. Mothers reported on their supportive parenting and rated children's social skills at three time points, once in each year of preschool (ages 4, 5, and 6). The results indicated that the reciprocal model fit the best to explain the association between supportive parenting and children's social skills. In the reciprocal relationship between supportive parenting and children's social skills, the parent-driven effect was significantly stronger than the child-driven effect among children aged 4 to 5, but the child-driven effect was significantly stronger than the parent-driven effect for children aged 5 to 6. The findings contribute to our understanding of dynamic associations between supportive parenting and children's social skills in the Chinese context. Implications for educational practices are discussed. Highlights: The reciprocal model produced the best fit in explaining the association between supportive parenting and children's social skills among Chinese preschoolers. The parent-driven effect was significantly different from the child-driven effect in the reciprocal association. A random intercepts cross-lagged panel model was used to compare the parent-driven model, the child-driven model, and the reciprocal model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a case study on perceived conflict and its outcomes on implementing a system of programs and services for child development support. A multi-level collaboration model is used to deeply examine aspects of conflicts perceived by professionals responsible for implementing the system at the national, state, and local levels. This research adopted a single case approach with qualitative methods using semi-structured interviews and exploratory thematic analysis. A total of 29 professionals working at social development and health ministries, state departments, and one municipality participated in this study. The results show that professionals perceive one main unresolved conflict at each of the ecological levels. These conflicts are related to an informalized collaboration agreement between the Ministry of Social Development and the Ministry of Education, an interrupted resource flow from the national level to local level, and an unmanageable internal pressure at the state level. Furthermore, the compensatory strategies they use to deal with these conflicts are ineffective and lead to negative implementation outcomes. We suggest that future research should explore systemic conflict for the collaboration processes among the professionals to improve, thus increasing the quality of system implementation. Highlights: Professionals perceive one main unresolved conflict at each of the three ecological levels examined. Conflicts are related to informalized agreements between ministries, interrupted resource flow from the national level, and pressure from the local level. Professionals use compensatory strategies to cope with unresolved conflicts. The compensatory strategies identified are ineffective and lead to negative implementation outcomes. Findings reveal opportunities for future research to explore systemic conflict to better understand and improve collaboration processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical and social environments, particularly the home environment in infancy, bring substantial impacts on child development; therefore, growth may be promoted when the home environment is duly regarded. Ultimately, the present study was conducted with 203 infants and toddlers living in Ankara (51% were females) and attempted to adapt the Infant-Toddler Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (IT-HOME) into Turkish to evaluate the home environment for children up to 3 years of age. While 33% of the children were 3–12 months, 34% were 13–24 months, and 33% were 25–36 months. We collected the data using a demographic information form, the IT-HOME, and the Ages and Stages Questionnaires-Turkish Version (ASQ-TV). Accordingly, for linguistic validity, we calculated the consistency between the original scale and its back-translation to be 92%. Moreover, the Lawshe method adopted to analyze the expert opinions yielded content validity indices (CVI) to range between +0.88 and +1.00 for the dimensions of the IT-HOME. The analyses for criterion validity yielded positive and significant correlations between the dimensions of the IT-HOME and components of the ASQ-TV (r = 0.146–0.369). We then calculated the test-retest and interrater reliability coefficients to be 0.745 and 0.989, respectively. In conclusion, in the current study, the IT-HOME was found to demonstrate good initial interrater and test-retest reliability and content validity in a Turkish sample. Highlights: IT-HOME is a worldwide used tool to assess the quality of the home environments of infants and toddlers. This study's showed that IT-HOME is a reliable measurement instrument for the infants and toddlers in Turkey. This study's showed that IT-HOME is a valid measurement instrument for the infants and toddlers in Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies reported negative effects of financial deprivation on child development during early childhood. As already shown, child development, in particular language development, is associated with family background, e.g., educational level. However, less is known about the impact of (restricted) financial resources on early language skills. Therefore, the present study investigates whether family income, measured as a metric variable by net equivalence income, and poverty, operationalized as income groups based on official income thresholds, impact vocabulary and grammar skills of 2-year-old children even when taking the educational level of the mother as well as aspects of the home-learning environment (joint picture book reading) and other relevant variables into account. Drawing on a German sample of N = 1782, we found that especially poverty is significantly associated with early language skills over and above maternal education and joint picture book reading. Hence, our results indicate the relevance to consider the effect of (restricted) financial resources and especially poverty on child development during early childhood additionally to other indicators of social background. Highlights: Children that experienced poverty during the first year show comparatively lower early language skills even when maternal education and joint picture book reading are considered. Using income groups defined by official income thresholds allow to more directly analyse the impact of poverty on children. Especially poverty is found to affect child development even in a rich country with a strong social system such as Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many children and teenagers living with mental health problems experience stigma from within their peer group, yet this remains an under-researched topic in developmental science and the broader mental health literature. This paper highlights the limitations of adopting measures, concepts and theories that have exclusively emanated from the adult mental health literature. We argue that the social context of children and adolescents is critical in understanding the development and maintenance of stigma towards those with mental health problems, alongside the changing developmental needs and abilities of children and adolescents. In this article we argue that a theory proposed to explain the development of stereotypes and prejudice in childhood has potential as a framework for integrating existing research findings on mental health stigma in childhood and adolescence and providing direction for further research. The need for interventions that are grounded within the developmental science literature and that explicitly state their theory of change are identified as key research priorities for reducing stigma during childhood and adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infants and toddlers are dependent on supportive and nurturing parenting to promote optimal child development. Assessments of parenting can identify need for parenting intervention, however measures are needed that can predict whether parents reporting challenges will engage in intervention. We validated the Parenting Your Baby (PYB) and Parenting Your Toddler (PYT) parenting measures and examined associations with engagement in parenting intervention. Participants included 403 primary caregivers and their newborns from a multisite longitudinal randomized control trial of the Smart Beginnings (SB) parenting intervention across two urban cities. Caregivers completed the PYB (6 months) and PYT (18 and 24 months) and other self-report measures of parenting and infant and toddler temperament and social-emotional functioning for validation. Observed parenting (6, 18, and 24 months) was coded from observed caregiver-child interactions. Engagement in ongoing intervention (SB) was recorded across infancy and toddlerhood. Factor structure was adequate for the PYB and strong for the PYT. Both measures demonstrated reliability and validity across concurrent and future self-report and observed measures of parenting and caregiver-reported infant and toddler functioning. Parent-reported desire for change in parenting scores on the PYT at 18 months were associated with engagement in parenting intervention 18 through 30 months. The PYB and PYT are reliable and valid measures of the parenting of young children, though more work is needed on the factor structure of the PYB. An important direction for future research is to understand and support engagement in parenting intervention for those who report desire for change but do not engage. Highlights: Parenting Your Baby and Parenting You Toddler are adequately valid and reliable self-reports of the parenting of infants and toddlers. Parent-reported desire for change in parenting at 18 months predicted engagement in parenting intervention 18 to 30 months. Work is needed to support engagement in intervention for those who report desire for change in parenting but do not engage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children rely on their parents or other primary caregivers to support the neurodevelopmental underpinnings of resilience, including social and emotional skills and neurocognitive executive functions. When adversity compounds a child's risk for poor outcomes, the functioning and wellbeing of parents may add to, or buffer children from, negative impacts. With a sample of 231 children ages 3–5 and their parents experiencing homelessness, we screened parents for depression, post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTS), and overreactive parenting and assessed how these factors were associated with children's neurodevelopment. We used confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling to identify a latent variable of caregiver distress. Results are displayed as standardized coefficients to increase the interpretability of the latent variables, rendering them in standard deviation units. Key findings indicate significant associations between caregiver mental health and multiple domains of child development. Results indicate that a one unit increase in parent distress was negatively associated with child neurodevelopmental functioning equivalent to several months delay. Within the parent functioning construct, depression and PTS showed strong loadings, while overreactive parenting was moderately associated. This represents a substantial difference in the real lives of parents and children experiencing homelessness. Implications for practice and policy and the need for two-generational and family-centered approaches are discussed. Highlights: Parental traumatic stress was negatively associated child self-regulation skills in a sample of families experiencing homelessness. Parent depression was the strongest predictor of child neurodevelopmental delays, and post-trauma stress symptoms were moderately correlated with child neurodevelopmental outcomes. Overreactive parenting was moderately correlated with child neurodevelopmental functioning. Results support a family centered approach to address family homelessness including early screening of all family members, and access to support and treatment for parents to lower child developmental risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we focus on the developmental contexts of middle childhood and early adolescence to explore the lives of citizen-children living with undocumented Mexican parents. We draw on the concept of belonging to highlight the distinct situation of citizen-children and the ways in which they come to understand their place in a world. To capture the experiences of citizen-children born to undocumented Mexican immigrant parents and their sense of belonging to place and community, we conducted in-depth interviews with 83 citizen-children in late childhood and early adolescence in three groups. One group of citizen-children lived in Mexico after their parents' deportation. Another group remained in the U.S. after parents were detained or deported. The third group did not have a parent in deportation proceedings. Qualitative analyses of children's recorded interviews revealed their experiences of discovery of parents' undocumented status; political, social and material exclusion; and rupture of family ties. Children were keenly aware that birthright citizenship afforded them numerous privileges unavailable to their parents, but that it did not extend to the very privilege, they valued most: an intact family. The loss of parents through detention or deportation forced some children to consider existential questions about who they were and where they belonged, sometimes pitting family members against one another. Our findings suggest that belonging is intimately tied to broader forces of legal persecution that go beyond individualized notions of illegality and have deep, possibly lasting psychological effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Use of the Five Minute Speech Sample in parenting research has become increasingly widespread in recent years, raising important questions about how it maps onto other more established methods for assessing parent-child dynamics. Given the historical emphasis on direct observation as a gold standard in such assessment, our aim was to examine associations between the Five Minute Speech Sample and direct observational coding of parent-child interactions, and to evaluate the assumption that the Five Minute Speech Sample reflects moment-to-moment exchanges between parents and children. A systematic search of three databases conducted identified 25 relevant studies (total N = 2945 child participants). These studies focused largely on four distinct systems for coding the Five Minute Speech Sample, and reported on distinct developmental periods ranging from infancy (17 months) through to adolescence (17 years). In 20 of 25 studies, the Five Minute Speech Sample was significantly associated with observations of parent-child interactions. These associations were apparent in all age groups examined, yet findings for fathers were somewhat more mixed than mothers. Available evidence suggests that the Five Minute Speech Sample holds strong potential as a brief but richly informative tool for indexing parent-child dynamics-particularly affective dimensions of the parent-child relationship-in both research and clinical contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed whether the links between early maternal employment and children's school readiness have changed over time. Research has examined mothers' labor force participation and its associations with children's well-being. As maternal employment has become more normative, these associations may have changed, particularly among subgroups of families. Data come from two large, longitudinal samples of children born in the U.S. in 1991 (N = 1042) and in 2001 (N = 7850). OLS regression models estimated changes between cohorts in the associations between early maternal employment and children's reading/language skills, math skills, and conduct problems at age 4 and school entry. Despite similar prevalence rates of maternal employment by 9 months between the 1991 and 2001 samples, there were differences in the demographic characteristics of mothers in each employment pattern over the decade. Examining associations between the early maternal employment patterns and children's school readiness, results revealed that full time employment by 9 months in comparison to non-employment shifted to having more positive associations with reading/language skills at age 4 and school entry from 1991 to 2001. However, full time maternal employment by 9 months was associated with children's higher conduct problems at school entry in 1991 and 2001, and by 2001, part time employment had similar repercussions. The results differed by family income. There have been small changes in the associations between early maternal employment and children's school readiness over time. Highlights: Full time employment by 9 months shifted to having more positive links with reading/language skills from 1991 to 2001. Full time maternal employment by 9 months was associated with children's higher conduct problems in 1991 and 2001. Changes in the associations between maternal employment and school readiness differed by family income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This mixed method study examined maternal perceptions of their children's sibling relationship when one child has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and one is typically developing. Six mothers completed a questionnaire and semi-structured interview pertaining to their perceptions of the quality of the sibling relationship, the children's development, adjustment, and impact on one another. Mothers spoke kindly of both children and offered positive and negative perceptions of the sibling relationship. Mothers perceived that sibling influence was bi-directional, in that both children affect the behaviors and interests of one another, regardless of diagnosis and birth order. Typically developing siblings were described as very involved and caring towards their sibling; however, siblings and parents seem to experience day-to-day challenges associated with family relationships and dynamics. Findings highlight the need for services to address the individual needs of parents and siblings in response to having a child with ASD. Highlights: Mother's perception of the sibling relationship quality was investigated and revealed positive and negative dynamics between siblings with ASD and typically developing siblings. According to mothers, there is evidence of a bi-directional influence on each child's personality and development when one sibling has ASD. Developmental age may allow the typically developing sibling to take on certain roles, regardless of birth order. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In biological families, parental reflective functioning (PRF), or the parents' capacity to envision their child as being motivated by internal mental states, is known to facilitate the development of the child's theory of mind (ToM). Very few studies have investigated the relation between PRF and ToM in adoptive families, and none have simultaneously investigated the role of pre- and post-adoptive PRF. The present study is the first to examine relations between pre-adoptive reflective functioning (RF), post-adoptive PRF and children's ToM acquisition in a sample of internationally adopted children and their adoptive parents (48 children; 14 girls and 34 boys). Specifically, we investigated whether the relation between pre-adoptive RF and ToM was mediated by PRF assessed when children were aged 3.5–4 years, and whether these relations were moderated by age at adoption, which served as a proxy for early adversity. Results indicated that none of the PRF dimensions mediated the relation between pre-adoptive RF and ToM. However, pre-adoptive RF and PRF both independently predicted ToM. Moreover, age at adoption moderated these associations, with both pre-adoptive RF and dimensions of PRF assessed at child age 3.5–4 years being related to ToM only in children who were adopted at an older age (≥18 months). Highlights: Theory of Mind (ToM) development of adopted children is often challenged by difficult early life events. Adoptive parents' reflective functioning (PRF), the capacity to envision the child as being motivated by mental states, might foster the development of ToM. This study is the first to investigate the impact of both pre-adoptive and post-adoptive PRF in internationally adopted children's ToM acquisition. Pre-adoptive RF and post-adoptive interest in child mental states was related to ToM, but only in children adopted at the age of 18 months or older. Post-adoptive non-mentalizing of adoptive parents was related to weaker child ToM abilities, independent of age at adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parent characteristics and behavior are known to impact child development. Anxiogenic parenting practices, in particular, have been hypothesized to contribute to the development and/or maintenance of child anxiety and related problems. The most widely studied anxiogenic parenting practice, accommodation, has been defined as a parent's involvement in their child's symptomology (i.e., excessive reassurance, changing family routines, assisting in avoidance). Recent literature has also examined the function that parent executive functioning (EF) may serve in parenting behavior. However, little is known about how parent characteristics such as EF may specifically impact anxiogenic parenting practices such as accommodation. Therefore, the current study aimed to examine accommodation within the context of parent EF. Parents of children between 7 and 17 years of age were recruited as part of a larger study and completed self-report measures of parental accommodation (i.e., Parenting Anxious Kids Rating Scale-Parent Report [PAKRS-PR; n = 80], Family Accommodation Scale-Anxiety [FASA; n = 46]) and several neurocognitive tasks. A series of hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to examine the association between EF and parent accommodation. Results indicated that aspects of planning/organization and inhibitory control approached statistical significance as predictors of parent accommodation as measured by the FASA subscales and the PAKRS-PR, respectively. Potential contributors to the lack of statistical significance, limitations, and future directions are discussed. Highlights: Identifying parental risk factors for accommodation may allow clinicians to provide extra support to "high-risk" parents resulting in better treatment outcomes. Executive functioning presents a novel potential correlate of accommodation. Performance on two outcomes of a planning task and one outcome of an inhibitory control task approached significance as predictors of accommodation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental stress is an important correlate of numerous parenting problems and child outcome. However, measures of parental stress do not always refer to similar concepts. In general, there is wide recognition that, as a stress-related concept, parental stress is anchored in the experience of negative life events (NLEs). Other researchers have defined stress in terms of questionnaire-based subjective measures (SMs). Several studies suggest that the relation between NLEs and SMs varies. Among the possible moderators of this association is the type of SM, participant characteristics, the period of parenthood examined, and the use of prospective or retrospective research designs. The purpose of the present meta-analysis is to provide a better understanding of the relation between parental exposure to NLEs and SMs. Studies published between 1970 and June 2020 were selected using MEDLINE and PSYCINFO. Inclusion criteria required that studies involve parents of 0 to 18-year-old children and report an association between NLEs and SMs. Results for the 31 studies meeting criteria showed a moderate relation between parental NLEs and SMs (d = 0.54***, p < 0.001; Q = 324.10***; k = 31). Moderation analyses revealed that the type of SM, period of parenthood and geographical region moderated effect sizes. The NLE-SM association was greatest for "state" measures of stress, with effect size for "trait" assessments being non-significant. Greater effect size was also found for studies conducted during the prenatal period and in North America. Discussion focuses on defining stress more precisely when addressing the circumstances in which parenting takes place. Highlights: A moderate relation was found between negative life events exposure and parental subjective measures of stress. Association was greatest for "state" measures of stress, with effect size for "trait" assessments being non-significant. Greater effect size was found for studies conducted during the prenatal period and in North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parenting knowledge affects parenting practices and child development, yet more information is needed about "where" parents of infants turn for information and "why" they choose these sources. Using a mixed-methods approach, the authors captured and analyzed the cited resources that 38 parents turn to when seeking information about parenting. The present study utilized an innovative interview design which invited parents to consider and compare the people, places, and tools ("where") they turn for support and their relative preference for each by thinking of their resources within "Circles of Support". Parents were also asked to provide insight into "why" they make these choices. The Survey of Parental Expectations and Knowledge (SPEAK) was used as a measure of parenting knowledge. Descriptive information about parents (years of education and parenting knowledge) were also considered in relation to stated preferences for resource categories. Findings indicated that "informal" sources of information, such as family and friends, are commonly sought out with parent education level being significantly correlated with some resource categories (i.e., books, professionals). As to why they choose certain resources, parents prioritized "relational" and "informational" reasons, over "personal" reasons. Implications for avenues to provide parents with parenting knowledge and information are discussed. Highlights: Parents demonstrated a strong preference for family members as a source of support. Parents with higher levels of formal education showed increased preference for professional sources and books. Findings from the inductive thematic analysis of interviews indicated that overall, parents prioritized "relational" reasons, and "informational" reasons, over "personal" reasons for turning to specific resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parentification is defined as a pattern of family interactions in which children and adolescents are required to engage in adult-like roles and responsibilities typically reserved for parents. Parentification can interfere with child and adolescent development resulting in harmful outcomes in childhood and later in adulthood. Unfortunately, few measures exist for investigating and assessing parentification, with only a few measures developed and validated among Polish populations. In the current article, we report on two studies that explore the psychometric properties of an adapted version of the Parentification Inventory (PI) designed to assess caregiving among individuals who experienced varying degrees of parentification in their family of origin. The current article presents results from two non-overlapping samples (N = 693 [Study 1]; N = 252 [Study 2]) comprised of Polish emerging adults. In Study 1, the results from exploratory and confirmatory analyses demonstrated the adapted three-factor Polish version of the PI produced scores that are reliable and valid, although with significantly fewer items (22 vs. 12) than the original PI. In Study 2, the results confirmed the adapted Polish version of the PI scores were related to constructs (self-esteem and parent conflict) in theoretically expected ways. We conclude parentification is likely a culture-bound family systems construct that demands careful consideration by international researchers, practitioners, and policymakers. The psychometric properties of scores derived from the PI confirmed the multidimensional model proposed by Hooper (2009) and validated in US samples. The current studies also confirmed the PI—although with 12 items—is a suitable measure to be used with Polish families. Highlights: The Parentification Inventory is a reliable measure to assess for family caregiving. Parentification is correlated with constructs similarly in both US and Polish emerging adults. The Parentification Inventory is a sound option to be used in Polish families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal emotion socialization and children's temperament are two foundations of children's emotional development. Yet, emotion socialization and temperament are multidimensional, which suggests behavioral profiles are important to consider. We used a person-centered approach to compare children's emotion regulation and anxiety and depressive symptoms between maternal emotion socialization and child temperament profiles, uniquely and interactively. The participants were 322 mothers of a child ages 6–8 years (Mage = 7.4 years, SD = 0.84, 51% boys). Mothers completed survey questions about children's emotion regulation, anxiety and depressive symptoms, temperament traits, and mothers' emotion socialization behaviors. Four profiles of maternal emotion socialization (coaching/accepting, blended, punishing/minimizing, and low involved) were identified that explained significant variation in children's emotion regulation and anxiety symptoms. Four temperament profiles were found which revealed two vulnerable groups, namely emotional/cautious and emotional/impulsive, which distinguished children with more emotion dysregulation and anxiety and depressive symptoms. Unique associations of maternal and temperament profiles were found, but no interaction of profiles was significant in relation to children's emotion regulation or their internalizing symptoms. There is merit in continuing to examine parenting behaviors and their influence by drawing from a person-centered perspective. Highlights: Child emotion regulation and anxiety symptoms differed between four maternal emotion socialization profiles. Emotional children temperamentally cautious or impulsive have poorer regulation and more internalizing symptoms compared to others. Interactions of maternal socialization and child temperament profiles were not significantly related to child outcome measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This longitudinal study examined associations between parents' unequal division of child care when children were 5 years of age and children's self-regulation difficulties 2 years later, and whether parents' mental health problems, marital conflict, and warmth toward children mediated this association. Participants were 1707 families drawn from the Panel Study on Korean Children. Mothers and fathers reported on their perceptions of inequality in the division of child care, mental health, marital conflict, and parental warmth. Mothers and teachers reported on children's self-regulation difficulties. Parental division of child care was unequal with mothers shouldering the majority of it. Mothers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care was positively associated with maternal and paternal mental health problems and with their own and their spouses' reports of marital conflict. Fathers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care was positively associated with paternal warmth. Results of an actor-partner interdependence mediation model showed significant indirect effects from mothers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care to children's self-regulation difficulties via mothers' reports of marital conflict and maternal warmth. Additionally, there was an indirect effect from fathers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care to children's self-regulation difficulties via paternal warmth. The findings highlight the importance of the equal division of child care between parents in family functioning and children's development. Highlights: Mothers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care were positively associated with both parents' mental health problems and both parents' reports of marital conflict. Fathers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care positively predicted their warmth toward their children. Maternal perceptions of marital conflict and maternal warmth mediated the link between mothers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care and children's self-regulation difficulties. Paternal warmth mediated the link between fathers' perceptions of inequality in the division of child care and children's self-regulation difficulties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coparenting between grandparents and parents is increasingly prevalent in Chinese society. Based on the family system theory and the differential susceptibility model, the current study examined (a) the relative associations of maternal and grandparental psychological control with children's behavioral problems; (b) the interactive effects of maternal and grandparental psychological control on children's behavioral problems; and (c) the moderation role of children's temperamental reactivity. The sample included 241 Chinese multigenerational families with preschool children (130 boys, Mage = 4.88 years, SD = 1.04). Mothers and grandparents reported their psychological control and children's behavioral problems. Mothers also rated children's temperamental reactivity. The results showed that only maternal psychological control was uniquely associated with more children's behavioral problems. There was no interaction between maternal and grandparental psychological control. However, children's temperamental reactivity moderated associations between grandparental psychological control and children's behavioral problems. Specifically, grandparental psychological control was positively linked to children's behavioral problems only for highly reactive children. This finding highlighted the susceptibility of children with high reactivity to grandparental psychological control, raising the possibility of targeted interventions to facilitate children's development. Highlights: In Chinese multigenerational families, maternal psychological control played a more significant role in preschool children's behavioral problems than grandparental psychological control. There was no interaction between maternal and grandparental psychological control. High reactive children were more susceptible to grandparental psychological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the present study was to examine associations between maternal use of power assertive parenting across different discipline contexts and children's adjustment in a sample of low-income, racially diverse families. Drawing from social domain perspectives on parenting, we specifically examined discipline in response to child transgressions in conventional, moral, and prudential contexts. In turn, we tested how power assertive discipline within these domains may be differentially linked to children's externalizing and internalizing symptomatology over time. Participants included 201 toddlers and their mothers who were assessed across two waves spaced two years apart. Results indicated that mothers were more likely to endorse power assertive parenting within prudential contexts compared to others. Longitudinal analyses revealed that power assertive discipline in the conventional domain was primarily associated with internalizing symptoms while the moral domain was associated with externalizing symptoms over time. Moreover, domains of caregiving were differentially associated with substantive constructs as opposed to sociodemographic constructs. The results are interpreted within social domain conceptualizations of socialization that underscore how distinct domains may differentially impact children's socio-emotional adjustment. Highlights: Discipline in the moral domain linked to greater externalizing symptoms. Discipline in the conventional domain associated with greater internalizing symptoms. Discipline in the prudential domain linked to lower externalizing symptoms. Children's difficult temperament was associated with maternal use of power-assertive discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among social support, parenting stress, and depression in single mothers with young children in South Korea. This study also explores whether parenting stress plays a mediating role in the relationship between social support and depression. Self-report questionnaires were administered to 202 South Korean mothers who were raising young children on their own because of divorce, separation, death, or having never married, and three research variables were measured: social support, parenting stress, and depression. Data were analyzed using PROCESS macro version 3.4 to examine whether parenting stress mediated the relationship between social support and depression in these single mothers. The results of this study showed close correlations among social support, parenting stress, and depression in single mothers, and that parental distress and parent-child dysfunctional interaction among the subfactors of parenting stress played a mediating role in the relationship between social support and depression. Because the results of this study indicate that providing social support for single mothers can reduce their depression, significant attention must be paid to implementing policies to reduce single mothers' parenting stress for their psychological well-being and their children's development. Highlights: Social support, parenting stress, and depression were significantly correlated. Parenting stress played a mediating role. The importance of social support for single mothers should be highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, many children experience parental separation and divorce. This has a significant impact on their well-being, and emotional and behavioral functioning, and calls for prevention. To assess the effects of the Children of Divorce Intervention Program in the Netherlands (CODIP-NL) on 6- to 8-year-olds, we performed a quasi-experimental effect study. The study compared children receiving CODIP-NL (intervention: I, n = 104), children not receiving CODIP-NL but having divorced parents (divorced control: DC, n = 37), and children belonging to non-divorced families (non-divorced control: NDC, n = 138). Outcomes pertained to children's positive functioning, emotional and behavioral problems, and well-being. We assessed pre- to post-test differences in change in mother-reported outcomes between the intervention and control groups, and pre- to post-test differences in group leader reports. The intervention led to increases in mother-reported positive functioning (d = 0.97 I vs. DC; d = 1.04 I vs. NDC), and well-being (d = 1.00 I vs. DC; d = 0.84 I vs. NDC). Mother-reported child emotional and behavioral problems decreased after participation (total difficulties, d = 0.73 I vs. DC; d = 0.49 I vs. NDC). Group leader-reported pre- to post-test differences (p ≤ 0.001) pointed in the same directions. Findings support further implementation of CODIP to support children's positive functioning and well-being, and to decrease emotional and behavioral problems after their parents' divorce. Highlights: The high prevalence of parental divorce and its high risks for child well-being and functioning urgently call for prevention of problems for these children and support as they adapt to the divorce. Effective intervention programs are relatively rare. One of the few is the Children of Divorce Intervention Program (CODIP), aimed at preventing divorce-related problems in primary school children. Evidence is limited regarding its effects outside the US. This study in the Netherlands showed that CODIP-NL effectively promotes the emotional well-being and positive functioning of young children involved in parental divorce, and reduces their emotional and behavioral problems. These findings support wider implementation of CODIP to effectively strengthen children's adaptation to parental divorce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many households in Mongolia are facing increased livelihood and financial insecurity due to rapid social, economic, political, and climate changes. There is concern regarding the effects of a loss in livelihoods and shifting gender roles on family dynamics in these households. This historical cross-sectional study explores patterns of father presence and father engagement with children under five in Mongolia between 2000–2013 using Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) data. Trend analyses were performed to explore changes in father presence and engagement from the four most recent datasets. Patterns were explored for demographic subgroups such as region of residence, urban/rural residence, child's sex, and whether the household owned livestock. Multivariate logistic regression was also performed to adjust for potential confounding variables and covariates. The national point-prevalence of father presence fluctuated from 78–83% while father engagement fluctuated between 40–49% across the survey time-points. These fluctuations were only significant for father presence. Significant changes in father presence and engagement were evident in the Khangai, Central, and Ulaanbaatar regions, while in the Western region only significant changes for father engagement were found. Logistic regression showed a change in point-prevalence of father engagement between 2005 and 2010 and between 2005 and 2013, and changes in father presence and engagement over time remained significant after controlling for other covariates such as SES. The changes in father presence and engagement in many households may be due to the economic insecurities brought about by rapid macro-environmental changes. Highlights: 78–83% of homes in Mongolia reported a father in the household and father presence varied by region in Mongolia, level of maternal education, household wealth quintile and whether a family owned livestock. 40–49% of homes in Mongolia reported that the father engaged in activities with children under five years old in the household. Father engagement varied by whether a father was reported to be a member of the household as well as by region in Mongolia, mother's educational level, and household wealth quintile. There have been fluctuations in patterns of father presence and engagement over time between 2000 and 2013 indicating these variables may be influenced by broader sociopolitical or environmental changes that are occurring in Mongolia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing evidence supports the existence of time-related impairments in school-aged children and adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), but this deficit has not yet been investigated in preschoolers with ADHD. The aim of the current study was to determine the extent to which time-related impairments can be identified within the context of parent–child interactions in preschoolers with ADHD. Participants for this study included 29 children with ADHD and 34 typically developing (TD) children (63.5% male; Mage = 4.77, SD = 0.65; 82.5% Hispanic/Latinx), and their parents. A ten-minute play session was video-recorded for each parent-child dyad. The verbal interactions were transcribed and coded for words/expressions related to the categories of time (e.g., "later", "tomorrow"), as well as mathematics (e.g., "two more", "some"), and space (e.g., "here/there", "behind"). The proportion of tokens (total number of terms) and types (different terms) of each category was calculated in relation to the total verbal production for each individual (i.e., parents and children separately), and differences between groups were analyzed. Results indicated that compared to TD children, children with ADHD showed a poorer vocabulary of time-related words (d = 0.63), whereas similar rates between groups were found for the math- and space-related words. Correlation analyses revealed significant associations between the types of time-related words used by children, and problems with attention and executive functioning. These results offer some evidence for not only the presence of time-related deficits in preschoolers with ADHD, but also the association between time-related deficits and impairments in cognitive functioning. Highlights: Time-related impairments characterize individuals with ADHD, but they have never been investigated in preschoolers with ADHD. A poorer vocabulary of time-related words was found in preschoolers with ADHD, compared to controls. Preschoolers with ADHD and controls showed similar rates of math- and space-related words. Significant associations between the types of time-related words used by children, and problems with attention and executive functioning, were identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prenatal smoke exposure (PSE) is a risk factor for adverse outcomes in the offspring, including those affecting psychological development. However, it is uncertain whether these associations are the direct result of PSE or other confounding factors. The aim of this study was to examine the possible relationship between PSE and behavioral development in children at 7.5 years of age, considering several prenatal, neonatal and postnatal covariates. A cohort of 266 mother-child pairs was followed from the first trimester of pregnancy until the children reached 7.5 years of age. PSE was assessed using a questionnaire from prenatal clinical records and corroborated by plasma cotinine determinations in the first and second trimesters and in the cord. Mother-child pairs were classified into one of four groups: unexposed, exposed to passive smoking, first trimester active smoking only and active smoking throughout pregnancy. Child behavior was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist for ages 6–18 and the Childhood Autism Spectrum Test. In multiple linear regression models, smoking during pregnancy was associated with higher scores in affective problems (β = 0.298; p = 0.004). No significant associations were found between smoking during pregnancy and externalizing problems. Findings indicate that PSE is negatively associated with behavioral development in childhood. Highlights: How maternal exposure to smoking (passive and active) during pregnancy is associated with behavior in the offspring was investigated in a longitudinal birth cohort with 7.5 years of follow-up. Smoking exposure data was collected from the obstetrical history, questionnaires regarding smoking habits and passive smoking behavior in the previous 5 years completed in interviews with the mother at 20 and 32 gestational weeks, and plasma cotinine concentrations measured during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy and from cord blood. Active smoking during pregnancy was associated with increased risk of development of both, affective problems and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the offspring at 7.5 years of age. Prenatal smoke exposure was not associated with components of externalizing behavior or Autism Spectrum Disorder risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research demonstrates an association between parental divorce and separation and a range of negative child outcomes, including sleep difficulties. We used the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing longitudinal dataset to examine whether associations between parents ending a romantic relationship (i.e., parental relationship dissolution) and child sleep quality are moderated by maternal socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity. Although there were no statistically significant differences in the association between a parental relationship dissolution and child sleep by race/ethnicity, findings suggest a significant moderating role of maternal education, such that the association between a parental relationship dissolution and child sleep was stronger for children in middle childhood whose mothers report higher versus lower levels of education. Such findings emphasize the need to support all families, including those with more resources, during the process of parental divorce and separation so that we can prevent the development of psychopathology among children who experience this very common adverse childhood experience. Highlights: Divorce and parental separation (parental relationship dissolutions) is a common adverse childhood experience. Parental relationship dissolutions are related to a number of psychological and behavioral problems for children. We found that the sleep of nine year old children from high SES homes was more negatively impacted by parental relationship dissolutions. Declines in sleep for nine year old children from high SES homes predicted more symptoms of behavioral problems. These results highlight the importance of the supporting sleep of children after they experience a parental relationship dissolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social emotional development in infancy is a predictor of outcomes in later life, yet there is little evidence of effectiveness for parenting interventions designed to enhance social emotional wellbeing in infancy. An 18-month two-arm randomized controlled pilot trial evaluated the feasibility of a definitive trial of Incredible Years (IY) Infant and Toddler parent programs delivered in a proportionate universal model, called Enhancing Social-Emotional Health and Wellbeing in the Early Years (E-SEE) Steps. Intervention families received an IY Babies book (universal dose), followed by the IY Infant and/or the Toddler group-based programs, based on parent depression (PHQ-9) and/or child social emotional development (ASQ:SE-2) scores. Control parents received services as usual. Parents from two English local authorities with a child eight-weeks-old or younger participated, and were block randomized using a web-based system. Primary endpoints for the study were feasibility parameters relating to recruitment, retention, intervention fidelity and appropriateness of measures. 205 participants were randomized (152:53, intervention:control). Our target was 288 parents. Trial retention rate was higher than expected, with a completion rate of 88% (n = 181, 137:44) at follow-up 3; equating to 94% of 192 expected participants. Intervention uptake was lower than expected. Fidelity of delivery was acceptable and measures were deemed appropriate. A definitive trial is feasible with design amendments to include: introduction of a child screener for intervention eligibility; enhanced intervention material; revised sample size and random allocation ratio. Our internal pilot became an external pilot due to these changes. Highlights: This is the first pilot of a proportionate universal delivery of the IY parent program. Trial retention was high at 88% at final follow-up (18 months post baseline). Emerging findings suggest a definitive trial of E-SEE STEPS is warranted. Definitive trials should consider methods to enhance intervention uptake. Trials should consider intervention compliance with relevant guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little research regarding the influence of parental knowledge and attitudes about child development on parenting practices includes fathers. The wartime military provides a specific context for fathering with frequent separations, which may impact soldiers' knowledge and attitudes about their young children's development. The purpose of the current study is to explore how military fathers' knowledge and attitudes about their young children's development influence their parenting behaviors across the deployment cycle. Fifteen active duty U.S. Army fathers with young children completed qualitative interviews, which were coded and analyzed to identify major themes. Many fathers had accurate knowledge of typical development and adapted their parenting responsively. Some knew less and were unsure how to respond to their children's behavior. Many believed separations did not negatively affect young children. This attitude may reduce concern about deployment's impact and keep these fathers mission-focused, but may also lead to missed opportunities to prepare young children for transitions. Overall, these fathers wanted to be involved, responsive parents. While many faced challenges navigating parenting throughout the deployment cycle, nearly all described positive adaptation, often with support from the homefront parent. These findings suggest that efforts to enhance military fathers' knowledge should be tied to their children's developmental stages and needs, focusing on parenting within the military context. Practitioners can respect Army families' cultural values by aligning family readiness as necessary to mission readiness. Highlights: Fathers' knowledge and attitudes about child development likely influence their parenting. The wartime military provides a specific context for fathering. Fifteen active duty U.S. Army fathers with young children were interviewed. Fathers tried to adapt their parenting to their children's developmental stage. Some fathers underestimated the impact of separations on young children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging conceptual frameworks identify executive functions as a potential explanatory variable in determinants of parenting, and a growing body of research has demonstrated associations between executive functions and parenting behaviors. Toward this end, the current study employs a process model investigating how maternal executive functions (working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting) influence caregiving approaches to discipline, and how parental discipline is associated with children's school adjustment over time. Additionally, this research represents one of the first attempts to understand the specific processes underlying a parents' ability to take on a scaffolding approach within discipline scenarios. This sample consisted of 243 socioeconomically and ethnically diverse mothers and their 5–6 year old children. Multi-informant methods were used to assess constructs. Results showed that maternal inhibitory control was associated with greater use of scaffolding discipline, which was in turn related to higher levels of children's school engagement and more positive teacher–child relationships one year later. Results are interpreted within an ecological framework regarding the role that parental neurocognitive functioning has on children's adjustment outcomes. This research has implications for better understanding which aspects of parenting would be ideal targets when developing interventions to aide children in their adjustment to formal schooling. Highlights: We examined how mothers' executive functions impact their use of scaffolding discipline, and how this in turn influences children's school adjustment. Multi-informant and methods were used, including behavioral coding, cognitive tasks, and surveys. Maternal inhibitory control was associated with greater use of scaffolding discipline, which was in turn related to more positive child school adjustment outcomes one year later. Mother's use of scaffolding discipline has important implications for children's school adjustment as they transition from kindergarten into first grade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To appropriately route children with developmental disabilities to appropriate early interventions, those children must first be identified via developmental screening and/or developmental monitoring. Most early identification research emphasizes the relationship between developmental screening and Part C early intervention (EI) receipt for children birth to two. The relationship between developmental monitoring and service receipt is understudied, particularly for 3 to 5-year-old children are routed to Part B (619) early childhood special education services. Thus, this study used data from the National Surveys of Children's Health (2007, 2012) to investigate the relationship between community-based health care providers (HCP) developmental screening and/or monitoring and the odds of early childhood special education receipt for preschool aged children (3 to 5). Across years, children whose HCP provided both developmental screening and monitoring, or developmental monitoring alone, had substantially greater odds of receiving special education compared to those who did not receive screening or monitoring. Receipt of developmental screening alone was associated with special education receipt in 2012, but not 2007. Developmental monitoring is understudied compared to developmental screening. Data presented here indicate that monitoring is associated with Part B 619 special education receipt and warrants further investigation to better understand how, with developmental screening, developmental monitoring might improve the identification of young children in need of 619 services. In particular, longitudinal analyses capturing data across systems, from screening and monitoring to assessment and service receipt, is needed to understand the effectiveness of monitoring for early identification and appropriate routing of children to relevant care systems. Highlights: Early identification research typically focuses on developmental screening in relation to Part C EI (serving birth to two), and not in relation developmental monitoring or Part B 619 special education (3 to 5 year olds). This study shows that conjoint monitoring and screening, and monitoring alone, are consistently associated with early childhood special education receipt for children 3 to 5 years old. More intensive longitudinal analyses are needed to accurately judge monitoring's impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]