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Conventional cellulose-based nanocomposites production requires two separate unit operations for the processing: (i) cellulose nanofibrillation unit, and (ii) polymer nanocomposites compounding unit. This two-unit process could be less efficient in terms of energy usage and material handling compared to a one-unit process. Moreover, the present of downtime in between the two steps may affect the overall productivity of the product. In this study, a one-pot process was adapted for nanofibrillation of oil palm mesocarp fiber (OPMF) cellulose and subsequently compounding of the cellulose nanofiber (CNF) with polyethylene (PE) for composites making. Both of these steps were conducted in an extruder with specially-designed twin screw, to allow nanofibrillation and compounding to occur in the same unit. It was interesting to note that CNF produced had diameter range of 80–100 nm, with an aspect ratio of 260. These superior physical properties have led to the excellent mechanical properties of the PE/OPMF-CNF nanocomposites, whereby PE/OPMF-CNF (3 wt%) recorded an increment of 57 and 198% for tensile strength and flexural strength, respectively, compared to the neat PE. Homogeneous dispersion of CNF in the PE matrix was also observed, suggesting the suitability of the one-pot processing method for cellulose-based nanocomposites production. Overall performance of the nanocomposites was similar to that prepared in a two-pot process; with the one-pot process was almost doubled in the productivity compared to two-pot process. A two-step in one unit operation (2-in-1) would be an ideal process for nanocomposites making as this method may improve productivity, reduce downtime in between the two steps, could contribute to a lower capital and processing costs, and may have lower energy consumption. The one-pot process meets most of the green chemistry principles; suggesting the method as a sustainable and greener method for polymer nanocomposites production.

Advances in biochar production and modification have extended the applications of biochar to wastewater treatment. However, not all feedstocks produced porous biochar at a moderate temperature suitable for wastewater treatment. In this study, biochar was produced from oil palm frond using steam pyrolysis at 500 °C and pulverized to granular and micro-fine particles. Both biochar particles were characterized and applied as adsorbents for treating final discharge of palm oil mill effluent. The effluent was also filtered and treated to examine the effect of suspended solids on adsorption capacity. The biochar had Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of 406.6 m2 g−1. Pulverization eliminated the residual macropores in granular biochar, created new external surface area, and exposed constricted nanopores, which resulted in increasing the surface area to 457.7 m2 g−1. The adsorption capacity decreased from 24.6 to 6.1 mg g−1 for chemical oxygen demand and 49.0 to 10.9 Pt–Co g−1 for color by increasing the dosage of micro-fine biochar from 5 to 30 g L−1. The total suspended solids affected the adsorption capacity of granular biochar by blocking residual macropores that provide access to adsorption sites in micropores and mesopores. At 30 g L−1, the micro-fine biochar exhibited an effective reduction of chemical oxygen demand from 224 to 41.6 mg g−1 and color from 344 to 15 Pt–Co g−1 making the wastewater suitable for reuse in palm oil mills and safe for discharge into the aquatic environment.