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Purpose: Whereas past research has examined the effect of individual-level and neighborhood-level predictors of bullying victimization separately, the current study examines their effects collectively. Methods: Middle and high school students (n=1972) in randomly selected classes within a Southeastern school district completed a battery of self-report measures. Levels of self-control (an individual-level factor) and neighborhood disorganization (a neighborhood-level factor) were regressed onto measures of the six-week prevalence of verbal, physical, and cyber bullying victimization. Results: Low self-control and neighborhood disorder were found to be associated with each type of bullying victimization, though the impact of self-control was partially mediated by neighborhood disorder when included in the same model. The effect of self-control was mediated when subsequently controlling for poly-victimization experiences. Net of these controls, neighborhood disorder continued to be associated with a statistically significant increase in the odds of bullying victimization. Conclusions: Economic and social decay within neighborhoods increased the likelihood of bullying victimizations. These effects hold true across verbal, physical and cyber victimizations, suggesting a need to consider both community characteristics when staging bullying intervention campaigns. Additionally, the findings suggest a need for further research considering the relationship between self-control and neighborhood conditions on the risk of victimization generally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Purpose: Victims of bullying are susceptible to a variety of detrimental consequences. It remains unclear, however, whether the type of bullying victimization and the gender of the victim matter as they relate to two mental health consequences: (1) depression, and (2) suicide ideation. Methods: We examined the effects of the bullying victimization experiences of 1,874 adolescents. Controlling for known predictors of maladaptive mental health, we assessed whether any bullying victimization and any type of bullying victimizations were associated with depression and suicide ideation. Each of these relationships was also compared across gender. Results: Reported victimization rates varied across three types of bullying. Experiencing any type of bullying victimization corresponded with higher levels of depression and suicide ideation for females and males. Females and males who were verbally bullied experienced higher rates of depression than those who were not bullied. Female cyber bully victims experienced higher levels of depression compared to male cyber bully victims. No significant gender differences in suicide ideation emerged across individuals who experienced any type of bullying. Conclusions: Assistance to victims in terms of the development and/or maintenance of their mental health must be mindful of how individuals are being victimized and the gender of the victim. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Purpose: Gottfredson and Hirschi, in A General Theory of Crime, argue that the primary source of self-control is parental socialization. Specifically, parents who fail to supervise their children, to recognize their child's deviant behavior, and to punish such behavior are more likely to raise children with lower levels of self-control. Recent empirical research, however, has broadened the explanatory factors to include sources within schools, neighborhoods, and individual factors as significant contributors to the development of self-control. This study proposes that maternal smoking during pregnancy places additional limits on the development of self-control. Methods: Using a subsample of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (N =542), we provide a comprehensive investigation of the variety of sources of self-control to include both individual and environmental covariates. Results: Results indicate that maternal smoking during pregnancy significantly impacts the development of self-control net of parental, neighborhood, and school socialization. We also found that individual sources of self-control significantly vary across race and neighborhood context. Conclusions: The sources of self-control are more complex than socialization from parents, schools, and within neighborhoods occurring in childhood and adolescence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Researchers investigating Gottfredson and Hirschi''s General Theory of Crime primarily concentrated their efforts on the relationship between an individual''s self-control and involvement in crime and/or analogous behaviors. Much less research examined the potential sources of an individual''s self-control. In this study, an argument was developed for the importance of exploring the contribution of the school context in the development of self-control within individuals. In particular, Gottfredson and Hirschi''s position on this front was theoretically elaborated by including school/teacher socialization practices in a larger model of the development of self-control. Using data extracted from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, it was found that the effects of school socialization on self-control were significant net of parental socialization. In addition, the effects of school socialization varied across parenting and neighborhood contexts. The theoretical implications of this research, specifically as they relate to the development of self-control, are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Gottfredson and Hirschi''s General Theory of Crime contends that low self-control interacts with opportunity to produce criminal and analogous behaviors. Although several theoretical and empirical attempts have been aimed at assessing the general theory, researchers have been slow to examine one of the central postulates of the general theory: the stability postulate. Gottfredson and Hirschi contend that once established by ages eight to ten, self-control remains relatively stable over the life-course. In the only study to address this question, Arneklev, Cochran, and Gainey found that self-control levels were relatively stable in a four month test–retest among college students. In this article, the work of Arneklev et al. is extended and examination is made of the stability postulate in childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. Using a national probability sample, as well as behavioral and attitudinal measures of self-control, the results offer mixed support for Gottfredson and Hirschi''s stability postulate. Theoretical and future research directions are advanced. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Investigating the causes of why individuals desist from, or are resilient to, delinquency, crime, and other problem behaviors has captured the interests of scholars. Within the context of criminology, much of this research focused on resiliency against offending; that is, understanding how and why some individuals within high-risk environments do not engage in serious criminal offenses. The extant scholarship, however, has not fully explored the effects protective factors might have on fostering resiliency against victimization. Using a sample of respondents drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study investigated how individual protective factors and the accumulation of protective factors contribute to the explanation of resiliency against victimization. Analysis of the data revealed that commitment to school was the only statistically significant independent predictor of resiliency for at risk-individuals. Additional analyses indicated that a protective factor index measuring the accumulation of protection was significant across multiple measures of resiliency. The policy and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]