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20(S)-Ginsenoside Rg3 (20(S)-Rg3) has been shown to induce apoptosis by interfering with several signaling pathways. Furthermore, it has been reported to have anticancer and antidiabetic effects. In order to detect the protective effect of 20(S)-Rg3 on diabetic kidney disease (DKD), diabetic rat models which were established by administering high-sugar, high-fat diet combined with intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ), and age-matched wild-type (WT) rat were given 20(S)-Rg3 for 12 weeks, with three groups: control group (normal adult rats with saline), diabetic group (diabetic rats with saline), and 20(S)-Rg3 treatment group (diabetic rats with 20(S)-Rg3 (10 mg/kg body weight/day)). The biochemical indicators and the changes in glomerular basement membrane and mesangial matrix were detected. TUNEL staining was used to detect glomerular and renal tubular cell apoptosis. Immunohistochemical staining was used to detect the expression of fibrosis factors and inflammation factors in rat kidney tissues. Through periodic acid-Schiff staining, we observed that the change in renal histology was improved and renal tubular epithelial cell apoptosis decreased significantly by treatment with 20(S)-Rg3. Plus, the urine protein decreased in the rats with the 20(S)-Rg3 treatment. Fasting blood glucose, creatinine, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in the 20(S)-Rg3 treatment group were all lower than those in the diabetic group. Mechanistically, 20(S)-Rg3 dramatically downregulated the expression of TGF-β1, NF-κB65, and TNF-α in the kidney. These resulted in a significant prevention of renal damage from the inflammation. The results of the current study suggest that 20(S)-Rg3 could potentially be used as a novel treatment against DKD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the recognition of the essential role of the immune system in the progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus, more studies are focused on the effects produced by the abnormal differentiation of components of the immune system. In patients suffering from obesity or T2DM, there were alterations in proliferation of T cells and macrophages, and impairment in function of NK cells and B cells, which represented abnormal innate and adaptive immunity. The abnormality of either innate immunity, adaptive immunity, or both was involved and interacted with each other during the progression of T2DM. Although previous studies have revealed the functional involvement of T cells in T2DM, and the regulation of metabolism by the innate or adaptive immune system during the pathogenesis of T2DM, there has been a lack of literature reviewing the relevant role of adaptive and innate immunity in the progression of T2DM. Here, we will review their relevant roles, aiming to provide new thought for the development of immunotherapy in T2DM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. To investigate the risk factors for cognitive impairment in Chinese type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients of advanced age and to identify effective biomarkers of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in these patients. Methods. Chinese T2DM patients (n = 120) aged 50–70 years were divided into groups with impaired (mild, moderate, and severe) and normal cognitive function based on Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-Mental State Examination scores. Data regarding demographic characteristics, clinical features of diabetes, biochemical markers, and metabolomics were collected. Results. Age, educational level, duration of diabetes, fasting blood glucose (FBG), HbA1c, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), and 24-hour urine protein were significantly associated with cognitive impairment in T2DM patients of advanced age. The severity of fundus retinopathy and the incidence of macrovascular disease also differed significantly among the groups (P < 0.05). Metabolomics analysis suggested that increased levels of glutamate (Glu), phenylalanine (Phe), tyrosine (Tyr), proline (Pro), and homocysteine (Hcy) and a decreased level of glutamine (Gln) were significantly associated with cognitive impairment in the T2DM patients (P < 0.05). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis demonstrated that Glu, Gln, Phe, and Pro levels were significant predictors of cognitive impairment in the T2DM patients. Conclusions. Age, educational level, duration of diabetes, and the levels of FBG, HbA1c, TC, TG, and 24-hour urine protein were considered as independent risk factors for cognitive impairment in older T2DM patients. Macrovascular and microvascular diseases also were closely associated with cognitive impairment in these patients. Together, Glu and Gln levels may represent a good predictive biomarker for the early diagnosis of cognitive impairment in T2DM patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metabolic diseases, especially diabetes mellitus, have become global health issues. The etiology of diabetes mellitus can be attributed to genetic and/or environmental factors. Current evidence suggests the association of gut microbiota with metabolic diseases. However, the effects of glucose-lowering agents on gut microbiota are poorly understood. Several studies revealed that these agents affect the composition and diversity of gut microbiota and consequently improve glucose metabolism and energy balance. Possible underlying mechanisms include affecting gene expression, lowering levels of inflammatory cytokines, and regulating the production of short-chain fatty acids. In addition, gut microbiota may alleviate adverse effects caused by glucose-lowering agents, and this can be especially beneficial in diabetic patients who experience severe gastrointestinal side effects and have to discontinue these agents. In conclusion, gut microbiota may provide a novel viewpoint for the treatment of patients with diabetes mellitus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]