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Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda(J.E. Smith) is a polyphagous agricultural pest threatening food security worldwide. This American species recently invaded most of Africa, many Asian countries, and Oceania, where it mainly damages maize. Classical biological control (CBC) through the introduction of natural enemies from its area of origin is considered as a potential management approach. The paper reviews the prospects and constraints of a CBC programme against S. frugiperdausing larval parasitoids, which are considered the most suitable natural enemies for introduction against this pest. The most important larval parasitoids in its native range are presented and discussed for their suitability as CBC agents, based the following criteria: their frequency of occurrence and parasitism levels, specificity, climatic suitability and absence of closely related species parasitizing S. frugiperdain the area of introduction. The ichneumonid Eiphosoma laphygmaeCosta-Lima (Hymenoptera: Icheumonidae) is considered as a potential candidate for introduction because of its specificity and its importance as a parasitoid of the pest in most of its native range. The most frequent and important parasitoid of S. frugiperdain the Americas, the braconid Chelonus insularisCresson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), would most probably contribute to the control of S. frugiperdaif released in invaded areas. However, it is oligophagous and would most certainly parasitize nontarget species. Before introducing C. insularis, or any other parasitoid species, the potential nontarget effects will have to be assessed and the risks will have to be weighed against the benefits of improving the natural control of this important pest.

We here review and discuss management options that growers in Europe could take in response to the expected invasion of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The focus is put on maize but the information provided is also relevant for other crops potentially affected. A sound forecasting system for fall armyworm both on a regional as well as at local scale should be established to alert growers as early as possible. Whilst a number of cultural control methods are adopted by maize growers in different regions globally to fight fall armyworm, many of them may either not be highly effective, too laborious, or otherwise unfeasible within the mechanized crop production systems used in Europe. Potential is seen in the stimulation of natural enemies through conservation biocontrol approaches, e.g., the planting of flower strips or intermediate cover crops, reducing tillage intensity, and avoiding broad-spectrum insecticides. To manage fall armyworm infestations, several effective biologically-based products are available globally, and some in Europe, e.g., based on specific baculoviruses, certain Bacillus thuringiensisstrains, few entomopathogenic nematodes, and a number of botanicals. These should be given priority to avoid a major influx of insecticides into the maize agro-ecosystem once the fall armyworm arrives and in case growers are not prepared. Plant protection companies, particularly biocontrol companies should act proactively in starting registration of ingredients and products against fall armyworm in Europe. European maize growers should be made aware, in time, of key features of this new invasive pest and appropriate control options.