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This study investigated the intra-day and inter-day reliability of electrical impedance myography (EIM) components and explored sex and regional differences in healthy adults' anterior thigh muscles. Using a multifrequency device, impedance values across various frequencies, alongside 50-kHz resistance (R), reactance (Xc), and phase angle (PhA) were assessed in both sexes and at whole anterior thigh, proximal and distal regions. Findings revealed excellent reliability (ICC > 0.90) and low standard error of measurement (<5.0 %) for impedance at all frequencies, 50-kHz R, Xc, and PhA regardless of sex or measurement region during both intra-day and inter-day assessments. Moreover, differences were observed between women and men across most parameters, except for Xc, indicating the sensitivity of EIM in detecting established disparities in tissue composition between sexes. Notably, whole anterior thigh impedance at all frequencies and 50-kHz R, Xc, and PhA displayed dissimilarities compared to proximal or distal regions in both sexes. Additionally, women exhibited differences between proximal and distal regions in the 100-kHz impedance and 50-kHz impedance, R, Xc, and PhA highlighting possible variations in tissue composition along the muscle length compared to men. These findings underscore the relevance of electrode placement and emphasize sex-specific differences in EIM assessments within anterior thigh muscle regions., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Several techniques are available to assess muscle tissue status, including electrical impedance myography (EIM). Despite being used in the assessment of neuromuscular status in injury and response to exercise, reliability data for hamstrings muscles are limited. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the test-retest reliability of EIM components on hamstrings. Twenty-one healthy males (25.3 ± 3.4 years; 173 ± 6.7 cm; and 79.7 ± 15.9 kg) volunteered for this study. Subjects completed two visits, separated by seven days to collect EIM components (resistance, reactance, impedance, and phase angle) in the longitudinal and transversal axis of hamstrings in both thighs, using a bioimpedance device and Ag/AgCL adhesive contact electrodes. The electrode arrangement was in the muscular belly, half the distance between origin and insertion of the hamstrings. Reliability was determined by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), minimal detectable change (MDC), and Bland-Altman plots. We observed high to excellent reliability (ICC > 0.85) between all EIM components, except for reactance with MDC ranged from 2.0 to 10.8 and the mean bias in Bland-Altman plots ranged from -0.02 to 2.48 (95% limits of agreement from -9.98 to 11.20). From our findings, the hamstrings assessment using EIM technique is reliable to assess muscle tissue; therefore, it enables the evaluation of changes/adaptations in clinical and applied contexts., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In spite of the growing use of the electrical impedance myography (EIM) measures for clinical assessment and follow-up of diseased muscle tissue, reliability studies are scarce. We evaluate the reliability of the (EIM) technique using four adhesive electrodes over the muscle of interest. Intra- and inter-rater reliability was studied within the same session and between sessions. Thirty-one healthy and volunteer subjects aged between 20 and 26 years were recruited. Phase angle, reactance and resistance were assessed for each EIM measurement. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to determine the relative reliability. Absolute reliability was expressed as the standard error of measurement and the minimum detectable change. Relative reliability within the same session and between sessions for the EIM technique was excellent (ICCs > 0.9) concerning both intra- and inter-rater reliability, except for the component reactance. The absolute reliability was very high for the three EIM components. EIM measures using four adhesive electrodes over the area of interest is a reliable technique to assess muscle tissue status. This study confirms that these measurement results barely vary depending on the examiner and the moment. The present study also confirms phase angle as the least affected EIM component by examiner and evaluation moment., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) present increased passive ankle joint stiffness, measured as the slope of the torque-angle curve relationship. However, large discrepancies in results exist among studies, likely because of various methodologies used. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of different calculation methods on the outcomes and their inter-session reliability in children with unilateral CP (UCP). Thirteen children (mean age: 9.8 years) with spastic UCP underwent passive ankle mobilization at 2°/s on both legs using a dynamometer, on two occasions separated by one week. Passive ankle joint stiffness was calculated as the slope of the torque-angle curve using linear regression on three different relative ranges of torque (i.e. 30%-100%, 20-80% and 50-90% of maximal torque for method 1, 2 and 3, respectively) for both the paretic and non-paretic legs. Inter-session reliability was significantly lower on paretic leg (mean CV = 13.8%, ICC = 0.62) when compared to non-paretic leg (mean CV = 6%, ICC = 0.85), and method 3 presented lower reliability outcomes (mean CV = 11.7%, ICC = 0.75) than methods 1 (mean CV = 7.5%, ICC = 0.78) and 2 (mean CV = 6.6%, ICC = 0.79). Paretic values (0.24 Nm/°) were not different from the non-paretic leg (0.25 Nm/°), although significantly higher when considering the same angular sector (0.18 Nm/°). Passive ankle joint stiffness measurement can be reliably performed in children with UCP using method 1 and 2 while method 3 should be avoided. The non-paretic leg may be used for comparison with the paretic leg when taking into account differences in maximal dorsiflexion angle between legs. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02960932., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Tensiomyography™ (TMG) is a non-invasive method to monitor skeletal muscle mechanical characteristics. This systematic review and meta-analysis reports on diagnostic accuracy, validity, and reliability of TMG (maximal radial displacement [Dm], contraction time [Tc], delay time [Td], and velocity of contraction [Vc]) to assess exercise-induced fatigue in healthy volunteers, with the specific aim to determine the current level of supporting evidence. Systematic literature searches within Medline, Embase and Sportdiscus databases were conducted from January 1990 through November 2018. Methodological quality was evaluated by the Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS) tool or the Validity and Reliability Critical Appraisal Tool (CAT) or the Quality Appraisal of Diagnostic Reliability checklist (QAREL). Meta-analytical methods were utilised to summarize relative reliabilities of Dm, Tc, Td (95%, CI). The methodological quality of the 19 included studies (n = 373; female = 13.0%) ranged from low to high quality. The analysis revealed insufficient diagnostic accuracy and validity, mixed results regarding absolute reliability, and high to excellent relative reliability for the assessed measures. To conclude, robust evidence for diagnostic accuracy/validity of TMG has yet to be determined, whereas there is substantial evidence for its reliability. Higher methodological standards need to be established, including the avoidance of gender bias., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Increasing stiffness in the upper trapezius muscle may contribute to imbalance of scapular motion, and result in shoulder and neck discomfort during shoulder flexion. Therefore, it is essential to quantify upper trapezius stiffness in various shoulder positions in order to aid in the prevention of these disorders and to optimize rehabilitation., Objectives: The objectives of the present study were to examine the intra and inter-tester reliability of MyotonPRO device in measuring upper trapezius stiffness and its ability to determine changes in stiffness during shoulder flexion., Methods: Twenty healthy male subjects (mean age: 28.3±4.8 years) were studied. The stiffness of upper trapezius was quantified using the MyotonPRO device., Results: The results revealed excellent intra and inter-tester reliability for measuring upper trapezius stiffness with the shoulder in a neutral position, and also found a 14.2% increase in stiffness upon shoulder flexion between 0° and 60° of flexion. Minimal detectable change (MDC) was 26.3 N/m., Conclusions: Our findings indicate that MyotonPRO device is a feasible tool to quantify upper trapezius stiffness as well as changes in muscle stiffness. Thus, it is important to assess the changes in upper trapezius muscle stiffness due to pathology or treatments for future studies., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study investigated test-retest reliability of mechanomyography (MMG) on lumbar paraspinal muscles. Healthy male and female subjects (mean ± standard deviation, 25 ± 9.4 years, BMI 21.8 ± 2.99, n = 34) were recruited. Two test sessions (one week apart) consisted of MMG (laser displacement sensor (LDS)) muscle evaluations over the 10 lumbar facet joints, and 2 bilateral sacral sites, in anatomical extension and flexion. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA with Tukey's post hoc showed no significant differences between testing sessions for the same position (p > 0.05). The intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) in extension were classified as 'very good' (0.8-0.9) for maximal muscle displacement (Dmax), contraction time (Tc) and velocity of contraction (Vr). Half relaxation time (½Tr) and half relaxation velocity (½Vr) were 'poor' (0.4-0.5) and 'good' (0.7-0.8). In flexion, Dmax, Tc and Vr were 'excellent' (≥0.9) whilst ½Tr and ½Vr were 'fair' (0.6-0.7) and 'very good'. Comparing extension against flexion, significant (p < 0.05) differences in Dmax and ½Vr were found (L1/L2-L5/S1). Tc was significant (p < 0.05) for all sites whilst Vc was for L1/L2 on both sides (p < 0.05). ½Tr showed no significance (p > 0.05). Most MMG-derived parameters thus appear as reliable measures of muscle contractile properties in lumbar extension and flexion, with flexion providing more reliable results (ICCs)., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to compare measurement methods of tissue stiffness using ultrasound shear wave elastography (SWE) and superficial mechanical deformation (MyotonPRO) in the infraspinatus, erector spinae, and gastrocnemius muscles. Thirty healthy volunteers were assessed during rest, 40% and 80% maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). Correlation of the two methods in the three muscle regions was significant (r = 0.23-0.71, p < .05), and strongest in the gastrocnemius. MyotonPRO reliability was excellent (ICC > 0.93), and demonstrated ability to discriminate between the three levels of muscle contraction. SWE demonstrated good reliability in the resting condition (ICC > 0.88), but lower during the 2 MVIC conditions. The utility of SWE during isometric contraction may be limited due to the inability to discriminate between 40% and 80% MVIC., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Electromyography (EMG) is the standard modality for measuring muscle activity. However, the convenience and availability of low-cost accelerometer-based wearables makes mechanomyography (MMG) an increasingly attractive alternative modality for clinical applications. Literature to date has demonstrated a strong association between EMG and MMG temporal alignment in isometric and isokinetic contractions. However, the EMG-MMG relationship has not been studied in gait. In this study, the concurrence of EMG- and MMG-detected contractions in the tibialis anterior, lateral gastrocnemius, vastus lateralis, and biceps femoris muscles were investigated in children during self-paced gait. Furthermore, the distribution of signal power over the gait cycle was statistically compared between EMG-MMG modalities. With EMG as the reference, muscular contractions were detected based on MMG with balanced accuracies between 88 and 94% for all muscles except the gastrocnemius. MMG signal power differed from that of EMG during certain phases of the gait cycle in all muscles except the biceps femoris. These timing and power distribution differences between the two modalities may in part be related to muscle fascicle length changes that are unique to muscle motion during gait. Our findings suggest that the relationship between EMG and MMG appears to be more complex during gait than in isometric and isokinetic contractions., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A mechanomyogram (MMG) measured with a displacement sensor (displacement MMG) can provide a better estimation of longitudinal muscle stiffness than that measured with an acceleration sensor (acceleration MMG), but the displacement MMG cannot provide transverse muscle stiffness. We propose a method to estimate both longitudinal and transverse muscle stiffness from a velocity MMG using a system identification technique. The aims of this study are to show the advantages of the proposed method. The velocity MMG was measured using a capacitor microphone and a differential circuit, and the MMG, evoked by electrical stimulation, of the tibialis anterior muscle was measured five times in seven healthy young male volunteers. The evoked MMG system was identified using the singular value decomposition method and was approximated with a fourth-order model, which provides two undamped natural frequencies corresponding to the longitudinal and transverse muscle stiffness. The fluctuation of the undamped natural frequencies estimated from the velocity MMG was significantly smaller than that from the acceleration MMG. There was no significant difference between the fluctuations of the undamped natural frequencies estimated from the velocity MMG and that from the displacement MMG. The proposed method using the velocity MMG is thus more advantageous for muscle stiffness estimation., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to verify the reliability of the kinetic parameters of gait using an underwater force platform. A total of 49 healthy participants with a median age of 21years were included. The kinetic gait data were collected using a 0.6×0.6×0.1m aquatic force plate (Bertec®), set in a pool (15×13×1.30m) with a water depth of 1.20m and water temperature of 32.5°C. Participants walked 10m before reaching the platform, which was fixed to the ground. Participants were instructed to step onto the platform with their preferred limb and data from three valid attempts were used to calculate the average values. A 48-h interval between tests was used for the test-retest reliability. Data were analyzed using interclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and results demonstrated that reliability ranged from poor to excellent, with ICC scores of between 0.24 and 0.87 and mean differences between (d¯)=-0.01 and 0.002. The highest reliability values were found for the vertical (Fz) and the lowest for the mediolateral components (Fy). In conclusion, the force platform is reliable for assessing the vertical and anteroposterior components of power production rates in water, however, caution should be applied when using this instrument to evaluate the mediolateral component in this environment., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aims of this study were to develop a method to extract the evoked mechanomyogram (MMG) during cycling exercise and to clarify muscle stiffness at various cadences, workloads, and power. Ten young healthy male participants were instructed to pedal a cycle ergometer at cadences of 40 and 60 rpm. The loads were 4.9, 9.8, 14.7, and 19.6 N, respectively. One electrical stimulus per two pedal rotations was applied to the vastus lateralis muscle at a knee angle of 80° in the down phase. MMGs were measured using a capacitor microphone, and the MMGs were divided into stimulated and non-stimulated sequences. Each sequence was synchronously averaged. The synchronously averaged non-stimulated MMG was subtracted from the synchronously averaged stimulated MMG to extract an evoked MMG. The evoked MMG system was identified and the poles of the transfer function were calculated. The poles and mass of the vastus lateralis muscle were used to estimate muscle stiffness. Results showed that muscle stiffness was 186-626 N /m and proportional to the workloads and power. In conclusion, our method can be used to assess muscle stiffness proportional to the workload and power., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Mechanomyography (MMG) has recently shown promise in monitoring recovery of injured muscles. However, delivering a maximal percutaneous neuromuscular stimulus (PNS) could potentially be painful on severely damaged muscles. The aim of this paper was to determine whether delivering a sub-maximal PNS could still obtain accurate MMG recordings of muscle contraction time (Tc). The effect of muscle architecture on determining the minimal level of current was also investigated., Methods: Six muscles were investigated; 5 lower limb and the 1st dorsal interosseous. A 'current ramp' procedure was performed to determine minimal stimulus intensity required for accurate Tc recordings. A current ramp entails beginning at a low current (30mA) and increasing in increments of 10mA until a maximal muscle contraction is observed., Results: For lower limb muscles, 130mA was the largest current required to obtain accurate Tc recordings in at least 95% of the population. This was up to a 50% reduction in the amount of current delivered for some muscles. Fibre type distribution showed the greatest relationship with mean minimum current., Discussion: Future studies investigating injured or uninjured muscles via MMG, could use these submaximal currents to obtain accurate MMG recordings, whilst improving patient comfort and reducing experiment duration., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Assessment of movement dysfunctions commonly comprises trunk range of motion (ROM), movement or control impairment (MCI), repetitive movements (RM), and reposition error (RE). Inertial measurement unit (IMU)-systems could be used to quantify these movement dysfunctions in clinical settings. The aim of this study was to evaluate a novel IMU-system when assessing movement dysfunctions in terms of concurrent validity and reliability., Methods: The concurrent validity of the IMU-system was tested against an optoelectronic system with 22 participants. The reliability of 14 movement dysfunction tests were analysed using generalizability theory and coefficient of variation, measuring 24 participants in seven trials on two days., Results: The IMU-system provided valid estimates of trunk movement in the primary movement direction when compared to the optoelectronic system. Reliability varied across tests and variables. On average, ROM and RM were more reliable, compared to MCI and RE tests., Discussion: When compared to the optoelectronic system, the IMU-system is valid for estimates of trunk movement in the primary movement direction. Four ROM, two MCI, one RM, and one RE test were identified as reliable and should be studied further for inter-subject comparisons and monitoring changes after an intervention., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Tensiomyography (TMG) is a technique utilised to measure mechanical and contractile properties of skeletal muscle. Aim of this study was to assess long-term stability of TMG across a variety of muscle conditions. Gastrocnemius Medialis of 21 healthy males was measured using TMG in rested conditions, after a warm-up, after a maximal voluntary contraction and after a fatigue protocol. Participants were re-tested on a second occasion 4weeks apart. Among the parameters examined, Contraction Time, Sustain Time and Delay time exhibited a good level of absolute reliability (CV=3.8-9.4%) and poor to excellent level of relative reliability (ICC=0.56-0.92). On the other hand, relative reliability was good to excellent for muscle Displacement (ICC=0.86-0.96), whereas its level of absolute reliability was questionable (CV=8.0-14.8%). Minimum detectable change was less than 20% in most conditions for the aforementioned parameters. Half-relaxation Time yielded overall insufficient reliability. In general, the level of reliability tended to increase after the maximal voluntary contraction and the fatigue protocol were administered, probably because of more controlled conditions preceding the measurement. Information about the long-term stability of TMG across different muscle conditions is essential when intervention studies are undertaken with an exercising population, particularly athletes., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of activation capabilities on the electromyography (EMGRMS) and mechanomyography amplitude (MMGRMS)-force relationships of the vastus lateralis (VL) and rectus femoris (RF). Thirteen men (mean±SD; age=22±3 year) performed nine submaximal contractions (10-90% maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]) with the interpolated twitch technique performed during a separate contraction at 90% MVC to calculate percent voluntary activation (%VA). Nine participants with >90% VA were categorized into the high-activated group with the remaining categorized into the moderate-activated group. Slopes (b terms) were calculated from the log-transformed EMGRMS and MMGRMS-force relationships. The b terms (collapsed across the VL and RF) for the EMGRMS-force relationships were greater for the high- (1.29±0.31) than the moderate-activated (1.10±0.20) group. In contrast, there were no differences in the b terms for the MMGRMS-force relationships between the high- and moderate-activated groups. For the EMGRMS and MMGRMS-force relationships, the b terms were greater for the RF (1.38±0.30, 0.81±0.20) than the VL (1.08±0.19, 0.60±0.13) collapsed across groups. The b terms from the EMGRMS-force relationships, but not the MMGRMS-force relationships, reflected differences in %VA., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

There are limited data regarding metabolic responses during continuous exhaustive rides at critical power (CP) from the 3-min all-out test. In addition, no previous studies have examined the mechanomyographic (MMG) responses at CP from the 3-min all-out test. Therefore, this study examined the metabolic and MMG responses during continuous exercise at CP determined from the 3-min all-out test. Nine college-aged females (mean±SD: age 23.0±3.6yrs) performed an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer to identify the gas exchange threshold, peak oxygen consumption rate (V˙O2 peak) and heart rate peak (HR peak). The V˙O2, HR, MMG amplitude and mean power frequency (MPF) responses were examined during continuous rides to exhaustion at CP (81±6% peak power). There were significant increases in V˙O2 and HR over time and there was no significant difference between V˙O2 peak and V˙O2 at exhaustion or HR peak and HR at exhaustion. There were, however, no significant changes for MMG amplitude or MPF over time. Therefore, the current findings suggested that the 3-min all-out test overestimated CP and the demarcation between the heavy and severe intensity domains. Specifically, the V˙O2 and HR responses did not reach a steady state and were driven to peak values. Furthermore, the non-significant change in MMG amplitude and MPF were consistent with the responses observed at fatiguing power outputs (i.e., >80% peak power)., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of the present study was to examine the patterns of responses for torque, electromyographic (EMG) amplitude, EMG mean power frequency (MPF), mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude, and MMG MPF across 30 repeated maximal isometric (ISO) and concentric (CON) muscle actions of the leg extensors. Twelve female subjects (21.1±1.4yrs; 63.3±7.4kg) performed ISO and CON fatigue protocols with EMG and MMG signals recorded from the vastus lateralis. The relationships for torque, EMG amplitude, EMG MPF, MMG amplitude, and MMG MPF versus repetition number were examined using polynomial regression. The results indicated there were decreases (p<0.05) across the ISO muscle actions for torque (r(2)=0.95), EMG amplitude (R(2)=0.44), EMG MPF (r(2)=0.62), and MMG MPF (r(2)=0.48), but no change in MMG amplitude (r(2)=0.07). In addition, there were decreases across the CON muscle actions for torque (R(2)=0.97), EMG amplitude (R(2)=0.46), EMG MPF (R(2)=0.86), MMG amplitude (R(2)=0.44), and MMG MPF (R(2)=0.80). Thus, the current findings suggested that the mechanisms of fatigue and motor control strategies used to modulate torque production were similar between maximal ISO and CON muscle actions., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Although mechanomyography (MMG) reflects local vibrations from contracting muscle fibers, it also includes bulk movement: deformation in global soft tissue around measuring points. To distinguish between them, we compared the multi-channel MMG of resting muscle, which dominantly reflected the bulk movement caused by arterial pulsations, to that of the contracting muscle. The MMG signals were measured at five points around the upper arms of 10 male subjects during resting and during isometric ramp contraction from 5% to 85% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the biceps brachii muscle. The characteristics of bulk movement were defined as the amplitude distribution and phase relation among the five MMG signals. The bulk movement characteristics during the rest state were not necessarily the same among the subjects. However, below 30 Hz, each subject's characteristics remained the same from the rest state (0% MVC) to the contracting state (80% MVC), at which the bulk movement mainly originates from muscle contraction activity. Results show that the MMG of the low frequency domain (<30 Hz) includes bulk movement depending on the mechanical deformation characteristics of each subject's body, for a wide range of muscle contraction intensities., (Copyright © 2012. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Although critical for effective human locomotion and posture, little data exists regarding the segmentation, architecture and contraction time of the human intrinsic foot muscles. To address this issue, the Abductor Hallucis (AH), Abductor Digiti Minimi (ADM), Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) and Extensor Digitorum Brevis (EDB) were investigated utilizing a cadaveric dissection and a non-invasive whole muscle mechanomyographic (wMMG) technique. The segmental structure and architecture of formaldehyde-fixed foot specimens were determined in nine cadavers aged 60-80 years. The wMMG technique was used to determine the contraction time (Tc) of individual muscle segments, within each intrinsic foot muscle, in 12 volunteers of both genders aged between 19 and 24 years. While the pattern of segmentation and segmental -architecture (e.g. fibre length) and -Tc of individual muscle segments within the same muscle were similar, they varied between muscles. Also, the average whole muscle Tc of FDB was significantly (p < 0.05) shorter (faster) (Tc = 58 ms) than in all other foot muscles investigated (ADM Tc = 72 ms, EDB Tc = 72 ms and ABH Tc = 69 ms). The results suggest that the architecture and contraction time of the FDB reflect its unique direct contribution, through toe flexion, to postural stability and the rapid development of ground reaction forces during forceful activities such as running and jumping., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Tensiomyography is a method for valid and non-invasive estimation of skeletal muscle fibre type composition. The validity of selected temporal tensiomyographic measures has been well established recently; there is, however, no evidence regarding the method's between-day reliability. Therefore it is the aim of this paper to establish the between-day repeatability of tensiomyographic measures in three skeletal muscles. For three consecutive days, 10 healthy male volunteers (mean±SD: age 24.6 ± 3.0 years; height 177.9 ± 3.9 cm; weight 72.4 ± 5.2 kg) were examined in a supine position. Four temporal measures (delay, contraction, sustain, and half-relaxation time) and maximal amplitude were extracted from the displacement-time tensiomyogram. A reliability analysis was performed with calculations of bias, random error, coefficient of variation (CV), standard error of measurement, and intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) with a 95% confidence interval. An analysis of ICC demonstrated excellent agreement (ICC were over 0.94 in 14 out of 15 tested parameters). However, lower CV was observed in half-relaxation time, presumably because of the specifics of the parameter definition itself. These data indicate that for the three muscles tested, tensiomyographic measurements were reproducible across consecutive test days. Furthermore, we indicated the most possible origin of the lowest reliability detected in half-relaxation time., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of the present study was to assess the ability of TMG in detecting mechanical fatigue induced by two different resistance exercises on biceps brachii: high-volume (HV), and high-load (HL). Sixteen healthy subjects (age 25.1±2.6years; body mass 79.9±8.9kg; height 179±7.4cm) performed arm-curl in two different protocols (HV: 8×15×10kg, HL: 5×3×30kg). Tensiomyography was used to assess muscle response to both exercise protocols. The contractile capacity of biceps brachii significantly varied by means of the effects of potentiation and fatigue mechanisms that take place at different exercise phases. The most significant changes correspond to values of maximum radial displacement of muscle belly (D(m)), sustained contraction time (T(s)), relaxation time (T(r)), and contraction velocity (V(c)). The behavior of these parameters is, in general, similar in both exercise protocols, but they show subtle differences among them. During the first set, in both protocols, values for V(c) increase, along with a decrease in T(r), T(s), and D(m) values. Fatigue onset was evident from changes in such parameters, with HL being the first in showing these mechanisms. Tensiomyography has been shown to be highly sensitive in detecting fatigue-induced changes., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD) impairs maximal torque production which can cause a decline in athletic performance and/or mobility. EIMD is commonly assessed by using maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), creatine kinase (CK) and muscle soreness. We propose as an additional technique, tensiomyography (TMG), recently introduced to measure mechanical and muscle contractile characteristics. The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of TMG in detecting changes in maximal torque following EIMD. Nineteen participants performed eccentric elbow flexions to achieve EIMD on the non- dominant arm and used the dominant elbow flexor as a control. TMG parameters, MVC and rate of torque development (RTD) were measured prior to EIMD and repeated for another six consecutive days. Creatine kinase, muscle soreness and limb girth were also measured during this period. Twenty four hours after inducing EIMD, MVC torque, RTD and TMG maximal displacement had significantly (p<0.01) declined by 37%, 44% and 31%, respectively. By day 6 MVC, RTD and TMG recovered to 12%, 24% and 17% of respective pre-EIMD values. In conclusion, as hypothesised TMG maximal displacement significantly followed other standard EIMD responses. This could therefore be useful in detecting muscle damage from impaired muscle function and its recovery following EIMD., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of elastic compression on muscle strength, electromyographic (EMG), and mechanomyographic (MMG) responses of quadriceps femoris during isometric and isokinetic contractions. Twelve participants performed 5s isometric maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) and 25 consecutive and maximal isokinetic knee extensions at 60 and 300°/s with no (control, CC), medium (MC), and high (HC) compression applied to the muscle. The EMG and MMG signals were collected simultaneously with muscle isometric and isokinetic strength data. The results showed that the elevated compression did not improve peak torque, peak power, average power, total work, and regression of torque in the isometric and isokinetic contractions. However, the root mean squared value of EMG in both HC and MC significantly decreased compared with CC at 60 and 300°/s (p<0.01). Furthermore, the EMG mean power frequency in HC was significantly higher than that in CC at 60°/s (p<0.05) whereas no significant compression effect was found in the MMG mean power frequency. These findings provide preliminary evidence suggesting that the increase in local compression pressure may effectively increase muscle efficiency and this might be beneficial in reducing muscle fatigue during concentric isokinetic muscle contractions., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the study was to determine the directionality of the coupling of mechanical vibrations across the biceps brachii muscle at different frequencies of interest during voluntary contraction. The vibrations that are naturally generated by skeletal muscles were recorded by a two-dimensional array of skin mounted accelerometers over the biceps brachii muscle (surface mechanomyogram, S-MMG) during voluntary isometric contractions in ten healthy young men. As a measure of the similarity of vibration between a given pair of accelerometers, the spatial coherence of S-MMG at low (f<25Hz) and high (f>25Hz) frequency bands were investigated to determine if the coupling of the natural mechanical vibrations were due to the different physiological muscle activity at low and high frequencies. In both frequency bands, spatial coherence values for sensor pairs aligned longitudinally along the proximal to distal ends of the biceps were significantly higher compared with those for the sensor pairs oriented perpendicular to the muscle fibers. This difference was more evident at the higher frequency band. The findings indicated that coherent mechanical oscillations mainly propagated along the longitudinal direction of the biceps brachii muscle fibers at high frequencies (f>25Hz)., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The purpose of this study was to describe and examine the variations in recruitment patterns of motor units (MUs) in biceps brachii (BB) through a range of joint motion during dynamic eccentric and concentric contractions. Twelve healthy participants (6 females, 6 males, age=30±8.5 years) performed concentric and eccentric contractions with constant external loading at different levels. Surface electromyography (EMG) and mechanomyography (MMG) were recorded from BB. The EMGs and MMGs were decomposed into their intensities in time-frequency space using a wavelet technique. The EMG and MMG spectra were then compared using principal component analysis. Variations in total intensity, first principal component (PCI), and the angle θ formed by first component (PCI) and second component (PCII) loading scores were explained in terms of MU recruitment patterns and elbow angles. Elbow angle had a significant effect on dynamic concentric and eccentric contractions. The EMG total intensity was greater for concentric than for eccentric contractions in the present study. MMG total intensity, however, was lower during concentric than during eccentric contractions. In addition, there was no significant difference in θ between concentric and eccentric contractions for both EMG and MMG. Selective recruitment of fast MUs from BB muscle during eccentric muscle contractions was not found in the present study., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A coordinated activation of distal forearm muscles allows the hand and fingers to be shaped during movement and grasp. However, little is known about how the muscle activation patterns are reflected in multi-channel mechanomyogram (MMG) signals. The purpose of this study is to determine if multi-site MMG signals exhibit distinctive patterns of forearm muscle activity. MMG signals were recorded from forearm muscle sites of nine able-bodied participants during hand movement. By using 14 features selected by a genetic algorithm and classified by a linear discriminant analysis classifier (LDA), we show that MMG patterns are specific and consistent enough to identify 7+/-1 hand movements with an accuracy of 90+/-4%. MMG-based movement recognition required a minimum of three recording sites. Further, by classifying five classes of contraction patterns with 98+/-3% accuracy from MMG signals recorded from the residual limb of an amputee participant, we demonstrate that MMG shows pattern-specificity even in the absence of typical musculature. Multi-site monitoring of the RMS of MMG signals is suggested as a method of estimating the relative contributions of muscles to motor tasks. The patterns in MMG facilitate our understanding of the mechanical activity of muscles during movement., (Copyright (c) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study examined the log-transformed mechanomyographic (MMG(RMS)) and electromyographic (EMG(RMS)) amplitude vs. force relationships for aerobically-trained (AT), resistance-trained (RT), and sedentary (SED) individuals. Subjects performed isometric ramp contractions from 5% to 90% maximal voluntary contraction. Muscle biopsies were collected and thigh skinfolds, MMG and EMG were recorded from the vastus lateralis muscle. Linear regression models were fit to the log-transformed EMG(RMS) and MMG(RMS) vs. force relationships. The slope (b coefficient) and the antilog of the y-intercept (a coefficient) were calculated. The AT group had the highest percentage of type I fiber area, the RT group had the highest percentage of type IIa fiber area, and the SED group had the highest percentage of type IIx fiber area. The a coefficients were higher for the AT group than the RT and SED groups in both the MMG(RMS) and EMG(RMS) vs. force relationships, whereas the b coefficients were lower for the AT group than the RT and SED groups only in the MMG(RMS) vs. force relationship. The group differences among the a coefficients may have reflected subcutaneous fat acting as a filter thereby reducing EMG(RMS) and MMG(RMS). The lower b coefficients for the AT group in the MMG(RMS) patterns may have reflected fiber area-related differences in motor unit activation strategies., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The purpose of the study was (1) to assess changes in electromyographical (EMG) and mechanomyographical (MMG) signals of the biceps and triceps brachii muscles during absolute submaximal load holding in Parkinson's disease patients tested during their medication "ON-phase" and in age-matched controls, and (2) to check whether mechanomyography can be useful in evaluation of neuromuscular system activity in Parkinson's disease patients. The data analysis was performed on nine females with Parkinson's disease and six healthy, age-matched females. The EMG and MMG signals were recorded from the short head of the biceps brachii (BB) and the lateral head of the triceps brachii (TB) muscles. It was concluded that compared to the controls, the Parkinson's disease patients exhibited higher amplitude in the biceps brachii muscle and lower median frequency of the MMG signal in the both tested muscles. However, no differences in the EMG amplitude and an increase of the EMG median frequency in the triceps brachii muscle of the Parkinson's disease group were observed. The MMG was not affected by physiological postural tremor and can depict differences between parkinsonians and controls, which may suggest that it is valuable tool for neuromuscular assessment for this condition.

This study investigated the origin of curvilinear change in the superimposed mechanomyogram (MMG) amplitude of the human medial gastrocnemius muscle (MG) with increasing contraction intensity. The superimposed twitch amplitude, the superimposed MMG amplitude and the extent of fascicle shortening were measured using ultrasonic images of electrical stimulation during isometric plantar flexions at levels 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% of the maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). The superimposed twitch amplitude, the superimposed MMG amplitude and the extent of fascicle shortening decreased with increasing contraction intensity. The superimposed MMG amplitude and the extent of fascicle shortening showed a curvilinear decrease, while the superimposed twitch amplitude showed a linear decrease at levels up to 80% of the MVC. There was a linear relationship between the superimposed MMG amplitude and the extent of fascicle shortening at different contraction intensities. These results indicate that the superimposed MMG amplitude reflects changes in the extent of fascicle shortening at different contraction intensities better than the superimposed twitch amplitude. Our study suggests that the origin of the curvilinear decrease of superimposed MMG amplitude is associated with a curvilinear decrease of the extent of fascicle shortening with increasing contraction intensity in the human MG.

This study investigates the stationarity of steady state mechanomyogram signals for the purpose of determining appropriate features for signal classification. Mechanomyography is the superficial recording of low frequency vibrations detected over contracting muscles. Steady state mechanomyogram signals, recorded at the belly of the extensor digitorum, flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor pollicis longus muscles during functional grasps were tested for weak stationarity. Twenty percent of the contractions were found to be non-stationary, indicating that time frequency methods may be appropriate for automatic pattern recognition of functional grasp from the mechanomyogram. The distribution of the stationary test statistic was dependent on the type of muscle contractions, suggesting that the test statistic itself might be a discriminating feature for mechanomyogram pattern recognition in applications such as multifunction prosthetic control. Since the major known source of non-stationarity was decreasing variance, it is suggested that shifts in the distribution of the test statistic may indicate the time course of relative muscle contributions to functional grasp.

The purposes of this study were to examine the mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) time and frequency domain responses of the vastus lateralis (VL) and rectus femoris (RF) muscles during isometric ramp contractions and compare the time-frequency of the MMG and EMG signals generated by the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) and continuous wavelet transform (CWT). Nineteen healthy subjects (mean+/-SD age=24+/-4 years) performed two isometric maximal voluntary contractions (MVCs) before and after completing 2-3, 6-s isometric ramp contractions from 5% to 100% MVC with the right leg extensors. MMG and surface EMG signals were recorded from the VL and RF muscles. Time domains were represented as root mean squared amplitude values, and time-frequency representations were generated using the STFT and CWT. Polynomial regression analyses indicated cubic increases in MMG amplitude, MMG frequency, and EMG frequency, whereas EMG amplitude increased quadratically. From 5% to 24-28% MVC, MMG amplitude remained stable while MMG frequency increased. From 24-28% to 76-78% MVC, MMG amplitude increased rapidly while MMG frequency plateaued. From 76-78% to 100% MVC, MMG amplitude plateaued (VL) or decreased (RF) while MMG frequency increased. EMG amplitude increased while EMG frequency changed only marginally across the force spectrum with no clear deflection points. Overall, these findings suggested that MMG may offer more unique information regarding the interactions between motor unit recruitment and firing rate that control muscle force production during ramp contractions than traditional surface EMG. In addition, although the STFT frequency patterns were more pronounced than the CWT, both algorithms produced similar time-frequency representations for tracking changes in MMG or EMG frequency.

The purpose of this study was to compare a piezoelectric contact sensor with an accelerometer for measuring the mechanomyographic (MMG) signal from the biceps brachii during submaximal to maximal isokinetic and isometric forearm flexion muscle actions. Following determination of isokinetic peak torque (PT) and the isometric maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), 10 adults (mean+/-SD age=22.8+/-2.7yrs) performed randomly ordered, submaximal step muscle actions of the dominant forearm flexors in 20% increments from 20% to 80% PT and MVC. Surface MMG signals were recorded simultaneously from a contact sensor and an accelerometer placed over the belly of the biceps brachii muscle. During the isokinetic and isometric muscle actions, the contact sensor and accelerometer resulted in linear increases in normalized MMG amplitude with torque (r(2) range=0.84-0.97) but the linear slope of the normalized MMG amplitude versus isokinetic torque relationship for the accelerometer was less (p<0.10) than that of the contact sensor. There was no significant (p>0.05) relationship for normalized MMG mean power frequency (MPF, %max) versus isokinetic and isometric torque for the contact sensor, but the accelerometer demonstrated a quadratic (R(2)=0.94) or linear (r(2)=0.83) relationship for the isokinetic and isometric muscle actions, respectively. There were also a number of significant (p<0.05) mean differences between the contact sensor and accelerometer for normalized MMG amplitude or MPF values. These findings indicated that in some cases involving dynamic and isometric muscle actions, the contact sensor and accelerometer resulted in different torque-related responses that may affect the interpretation of the motor control strategies involved.

The primary purpose of the present study was to compare the fast Fourier transform (FFT) with the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for determining the mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) center frequency [mean power frequency (mpf), median frequency (mdf), or wavelet center frequency (cf)] patterns during fatiguing isokinetic muscle actions of the biceps brachii. Seven men (mean+/-SD age=23+/-3 years) volunteered to perform 50 consecutive maximal, concentric isokinetic muscle actions of the dominant forearm flexors at a velocity of 180 degrees s(-1). Non-parametric "run" tests indicated significant (p<0.05) trends in the MMG and EMG signals for the 5th, 25th, and 45th muscle actions for all subjects, thereby confirming non-stationarity of the MMG and EMG signals. There were significant (p<0.05) correlations among the average normalized mpf, mdf, and cf values for contractions 1-50 for both MMG (r=0.671-0.935) and EMG (r=0.956-0.987). Polynomial regression analyses demonstrated quadratic decreases in normalized MMG mpf (R2=0.439), MMG mdf (R2=0.258), MMG cf (R2=0.359), EMG mpf (R2=0.952), EMG mdf (R2=0.914) and EMG cf (R2=0.888) across repetitions. The primary finding of this study was the similarity in the mpf, mdf, and cf patterns for both MMG and EMG, which suggested that, despite the concerns over non-stationarity, Fourier based methods are acceptable for determining the patterns for normalized MMG and EMG center frequency during fatiguing dynamic muscle actions at moderate velocities.

Controversies exist regarding objective documentation of fatigue development with low-force contractions. We hypothesized that non-exhaustive, low-force muscle contraction may induce prolonged low-frequency fatigue (LFF) that in the subsequent recovery period is detectable by electromyography (EMG) and in particular mechanomyography (MMG) during low-force rather than high-force test contractions. Seven subjects performed static wrist extension at 10% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) for 10 min (10%MVC10 min). Wrist force response to electrical stimulation of extensor carpi radialis muscle (ECR) quantified LFF. EMG and MMG were recorded from ECR during static test contractions at 5% and 80% MVC. Electrical stimulation, MVC, and test contractions were performed before 10%MVC10 min and at 10, 30, 90 and 150 min recovery. In spite of no changes in MVC, LFF persisted up to 150 min recovery but did not develop in a control experiment omitting 10%MVC10 min. In 5% MVC tests significant increase was found in time domain of EMG from 0.067+/-0.028 mV before 10%MVC10 min to 0.107+/-0.049 and 0.087+/-0.05 mV at 10 and 30 min recovery, respectively, and of the MMG from 0.054+/-0.039 ms(-2) to 0.133+/-0.104 and 0.127+/-0.099 ms(-2), respectively. No consistent changes were found in 80% MVC tests. In conclusion, non-exhaustive low-force muscle contraction resulted in prolonged LFF that in part was identified by the EMG and MMG signals.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude and mean power frequency (MPF) versus torque (or force) relationships during isokinetic and isometric muscle actions of the biceps brachii. Ten adults (mean +/- SD age = 21.6 +/- 1.7 years) performed submaximal to maximal isokinetic and isometric muscle actions of the dominant forearm flexors. Following determination of isokinetic peak torque (PT) and the isometric maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), the subjects randomly performed submaximal step muscle actions in 10% increments from 10% to 90% PT and MVC. Polynomial regression analyses indicated that MMG amplitude increased linearly with torque during both the isokinetic (r2 = 0.982) and isometric (r2 = 0.956) muscle actions. From 80% to 100% of isometric MVC, however, MMG amplitude appeared to plateau. Cubic models provided the best fit for the MMG MPF versus isokinetic (R2 = 0.786) and isometric (R2 = 0.940) torque relationships, although no significant increase in MMG MPF was found from 10% to 100% of isokinetic PT. For the isometric muscle actions, however, MMG MPF remained relatively stable from 10% to 50% MVC, increased from 50% to 80% MVC, and decreased from 80% to 100% MVC. The results demonstrated differences in the MMG amplitude and MPF versus torque relationships between the isokinetic and isometric muscle actions. These findings suggested that the time and frequency domains of the MMG signal may be useful for describing the unique motor control strategies that modulate dynamic versus isometric torque production.

The aim of the study was to assess the effect of skinfold thickness on median and peak frequency of mechanomyographic (MMG) signal in relation to subject's age, gender and force during voluntary contraction of elbow flexor and extensor muscles. Seventy-nine healthy subjects participated in the study: 22 young females (age 20.1+/-1.1 years), 22 young males (age 23.4+/-1.1 years), 17 elderly females (age 64.9+/-5.1 years), and 18 elderly males (age 67.4+/-6.2 years). Three identical MMG probes were used to record MMG signals from above the triceps brachii (TB), biceps brachii (BB), and brachioradialis (BR) muscles simultaneously with the force signal. The results showed that the tissue between the muscle and the skin surface has a major contribution to the median and a minor contribution to the peak MMG frequencies independent of subjects' age (with force having more than 2 folds a smaller effect). During antagonistic function of the main elbow flexors and extensors, there is a decreasing effect of skinfold thickness and an increasing effect of force on the MMG frequency, and the relative contribution of both factors to the MMG signal is age related, especially in the TB and BR muscles. The BR muscle differs from the TB and BB muscles in regard to the effects of skinfold thickness and force on the MMG frequency, as well as in the effect of age on the relationship between the MMG frequency and skinfold thickness and force. The effect of age on the relative contribution of skinfolds and force to MMG frequency is specific for muscle and its function. It was concluded that studies that report MMG frequency with different values of skinfold thickness cannot be easily compared, especially when maximally activated prime movers are tested. A use of force and skinfold thickness as covariates is recommended when an MMG frequency is analyzed in subjects differing in the skinfold thickness.