Search

Transfer of development rights (TDR) programs shift development intensity between land parcels. Jurisdictions, most commonly local municipal or county governments, employ TDR to protect resources such as farmland or historical properties and to encourage infill and redevelopment where deemed appropriate. However, while championed by economists and others seeking to reduce conflicts between land development and preservation, TDR program adoption has varied widely across the US. What demographic, economic, or environmental factors are associated with TDR program establishment? This paper describes a census of 375 TDR programs in the United States, documenting primary program attributes and adoption year and categorizing their functions and typology. Using logistic regression, we analyze program spatial patterns and factors predicting program implementation. We find that areas that are coastal, more liberal, have higher home values, in home-rule states, and in states with state-wide growth management programs, are all significantly more likely to implement TDR programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Informed by literature on collaboration, policy adoption, and utility governance, this paper develops and empirically tests hypotheses addressing the implications of collaboration, utility ownership and city-level commitment to sustainability on city-level clean energy policy decisions. This paper offers an answer to the question, "to what extent does collaboration between utilities and local governments influence policy adoption." We utilize cross-sectional data from the United States focused Integrated City Sustainability Database (ICSD) to perform an ordinary least squares regression analysis that investigates the degree that specific city attributes and state policy influence the creation of city-scale policy. This analysis shows that cities with a Publicly Owned Utility (POU) adopt close to two energy policies more than similar cities served by an IOU. Higher levels of collaboration among cities and with an Investor Owned Utility (IOU) can offset a portion of the adoption gap for community-oriented energy policy, but has little to no impact on governmental or renewable policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flexibility and collaboration are a common prescription for complex, transboundary problems such as nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution. This paper examines the case of the United States Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program (CNPCP), under which all 28 coastal states must develop comprehensive NPS management programs. The CNPCP allows states to satisfy requirements using voluntary, non-regulatory measures, and grants considerable flexibility in terms of institutional coordination and public participation. Thus, it is unclear whether compliance – which is incentivized with Federal funds – should be associated with improved environmental outcomes. Using a remotely sensed land cover census of 800 coastal counties from 1996 to 2010, this paper tests whether compliant programs – and particular participation and coordination mechanisms – are associated with different rates of forest and wetlands conversion. Approved states are associated with decreased rates of forest and wetlands conversion, but minimal differences are found with respect to specific participation and coordination strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

London and New York have often been hailed for their sustainable planning practices. However, when one focuses on the entire city region, there is ever-increasing car-dependent development. This paper focuses on the exurban region of the two cities investigating transport-created CO2emissions. The research is based on the analysis of data of the National Travel Surveys of Great Britain and the USA through a quantification of personal travel and a top-down estimation of CO2emissions. It is the exurban region that accounts for the vast majority of CO2emissions: 77% for London and 87% for New York. In the wider region for both cities there is a policy vacuum and dearth of regional planning mechanisms to deliver policies to reduce CO2emissions. The paper argues that transport needs to be planned at the city-regional scale.ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHERCopyright of Journal of Environmental Planning & Management is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a multivariate measure useful for integrated environmental assessments. It is a weighted distance measure applied to metric data but based on nonparametric statistical procedures. The proposed measure allows all environmental indicators to be used directly without any reduction in dimension (e.g. as in principal component analysis) nor losing variance while being able to tolerate possible non-normality of the indicators, as well as non-linear relationships among them. Results of the hypothetical example and the Mid-Atlantic case study show that the proposed measure is suitable and valuable for integrating multiple indicators into a single index, an important task in integrated environmental assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about municipal planning for energy reduction and climate change in conservative areas of the United States, where opposition to environmentalism is often vocal and persistent. This paper analyzes the experience of 31 municipalities in the Dallas-Fort Worth region of Texas implementing the federal energy efficiency and conservation block grant. A qualitative case study approach and extensive interviews with municipal staff yield a detailed description of the political discourse of energy issues and climate change planning. Many municipalities used the grant funds for necessary maintenance projects and had little impact on long-term energy independence or climate change leadership. A subset of municipalities expressed fear of citizen disapproval and some experienced significant opposition that changed or halted their efforts. Based on effective initiatives and common challenges, recommendations are made to foster energy and climate planning in conservative regions and improve implementation of national policies on the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding consumer preferences is a key element of new product development and sustainable consumption. Among sustainable products, we consider new products with upgradability properties. Upgradeability helps to prolong the lifespan of a product, satisfying changing consumer preferences and needs. This additional created value must be measured by willingness to pay premiums. This paper uses a method which valorizes each attribute of the product and analyzes the determinants of these premiums. A key advantage of the calibrated auction-conjoint method is the possibility of estimating numerous attributes with a large number of attribute levels. The results support the idea that consumers are willing to pay premiums for upgradeable, sustainable products, although these premiums are rather weak for some durable products in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sea level rise (SLR) is expected, even without greenhouse gas emissions. As SLR is inevitable, adapting to its impacts has received increasing attention, and local governments are the key actors in this emerging agenda. This study indicates that adaptation planning for SLR should be integrated into two local major planning mechanisms in the United States: the local comprehensive plans and hazard mitigation plans. By evaluating 36 plans from 15 US coastal cities that are considered at high risk and vulnerable to rising sea levels, the results demonstrate that SLR is widely identified, but the overall quality of the plans to address it requires significant improvement. A detailed table of selected plans' characteristics is also provided as a lens on how localities tackle this challenging issue. The paper concludes with planning suggestions for coastal communities to better adapt to SLR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper defines an ecosystem services approach to guide stakeholders through the major steps of the Supplemental Environmental Project (SEP) programme of the US Environmental Protection Agency and state environmental offices. The SEP programme is focused on implementing ‘environmentally beneficial’ projects that compensate the environment and the community for adverse effects of violations of environmental regulations. A literature review reveals that the federal programme is greatly under-used by violators despite its enormous opportunities to enhance the human-environment relationship. The SEP programme shares major commonalities with ecosystem service concepts and these can be leveraged to define a structured framework, wherein ecosystem services can play a key role for formulating, evaluating, selecting, implementing and assessing SEPs. Concepts set forth in this paper represent a first step towards mainstreaming an ecosystem services approach in the SEP programme. Further research is needed to assess the applicability of the framework to different categories of SEPs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Increased trade and human mobility result in sizable benefits to society, but are often accompanied by negative consequences, such as increased introduction of invasive pests to different landscapes and seascapes. In this paper, we couple an existing model of the biological spread ofNasutitermes corniger, an invasive neotropical termite recently introduced to Florida, with information on the costs to treat and repair affected structures, and use this coupled model to simulate the potential short-term costs of establishment of this structural pest. We construct empirical distributions of control and repair costs, using surveys of the pest control industry and homeowners, and use them to simulate treatment and damage costs through a re-sampling procedure. Our results suggest that the net present value of potential costs from an uncheckedN. cornigerinvasion in Florida range between $6.9 and $9.9 million over the next 10 years. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper describes the frustrating reality of sustainability implementation in the USA and New Zealand (NZ), an early adopter of sustainability mandates. Local government has a key role in implementation, but has been slow to uptake sustainable practices. We surveyed senior planners in small to medium-sized local government agencies in both countries to identifywhichfeatures of local government support (or hinder) sustainability in practice. Environmentally sustainable practices are not well entrenched in either country. In the USA, the framing of sustainability and public support are significant predictors of implementation. However, sustainability is rarely a priority. In NZ, local government capacity is the main driver of implementation. We recommend that planners promote sustainability values, reconcile economic development goals with sustainability (e.g., green economy model), and translate public support for sustainability into institutional priorities. NZ localities also need increased capacity and US localities need continued Federal and State support. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Recovery is an important but understudied phase in the disaster management cycle. Researchers have identified numerous socio-demographic factors that help explain differences in recovery among households, but are less clear on the importance of place, which we define as a household's locality and local governance. In this paper, we examine the influence of place on disaster recovery through a study of the 2013 Colorado floods. Our findings are based on data collected from interviews, observation of recovery meetings, and a survey of 96 flood-affected households. We show that place shapes a household's disaster recovery by structuring: (1) physical exposure to hazards; (2) which local government has jurisdiction over recovery decisions; (3) local planning culture and its approach to citizen participation; and (4) the strength of social capital networks. Our findings expand the recovery literature and show that place-level variables should be taken into consideration when conceptualizing household recovery and resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the intent of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, many states have adopted policies and procedures directing state agencies and local government units to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of development projects prior to their undertaking. In contrast to a rich literature on federal requirements, current understanding of state environmental review is narrowly focused and outdated. This paper seeks to provide information on the landscape of state environmental review policy frameworks. The paper identifies 37 states with formal environmental review requirements through a document review of state statutes, administrative rules and agency-prepared materials, and confirms this finding through a survey of state administrators. A two-tier classification is used to distinguish states based on the approach taken to address environmental review needs and the scope and depth of relevant policies and procedures implemented. This paper also provides a discussion of policy and programme attributes that may contribute to effective practice, and of the potential for adopting relevant legislation in states where environmental review is currently lacking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrospective ecological risk assessment, restoration, natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) and managing ecosystems all require having a baseline. This policy and practice paper explores the factors that influence baseline selection, and it is suggested that ecological resources would best be served by: (1) integrating NRDA considerations into both future land-use planning and remediation/restoration; (2) selecting a baseline for NRDA that approximates the land-use conditions at the time of occupation (or a preferred ecosystem); and (3) integrating both the positive and negative aspects of industrial occupation into restoration decisions, baseline selection and NRDA. Under the Comprehensive Environmental Response and Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), natural resource damages are assessed for injuries incurred since 1980 due to releases, but the release itself may have occurred before 1980. The paper uses the Department of Energy as a case study to examine NRDA and the management of ecosystems. Releases occurred at many DOE sites from the 1950s to the 1980s during nuclear bomb production. It is suggested that the DOE has been responsible not only for injuries to natural resources that occurred as a result of releases, but for significant ecosystem recovery since DOE occupation, because some lands were previously farmed or industrialized. Natural resource injuries due to releases occurred simultaneously with ecosystem recovery that resulted from DOE occupation. While the 1980 date is codified in CERCLA law as the time after which damages can be assessed, baseline can be defined as the conditions the natural resources would have been in today, but for the release of the hazardous substance. It is also suggested that NRDA considerations should be incorporated into the remediation and restoration process at DOE sites, thereby negating the need for formal NRDA following restoration, and reducing the final NRDA costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social determinants of health refer to social, economic and environmental factors that influence well-being including economic inequality, residential segregation, sub-standard housing, lack of supermarkets, schools, transit and open-space, and disruptions to family and social networks. This paper asks whether and how the practice of health impact assessment (HIA) can integrate the social and physical determinants of health into planning processes, overcome institutional and analytic barriers for health analyses in environmental impact assessment, and offer a new model for healthy urban planning. This is done by examining how a municipal health agency, the San Francisco Department of Public Health, utilized HIA to conduct health analyses of development projects, collaborate with other city agencies and community groups, and initiate a multi-stakeholder prescriptive HIA all aimed at integrating health into environmental planning practices. This case is important because the San Francisco DPH is the first city agency in the US to experiment with using HIA that aims to capture the physical and social environmental health impacts of projects and plans. The paper finds that HIA can inject the social determinants of health into planning when public agencies embrace an expanded definition of environmental health, organize health advocacy networks within and outside government, and generate a broad scientific evidence base to substantiate policy change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses public participation in sustainability initiatives and in the development of sustainable communities. In particular, it examines two models of public participation in environmental policy, referred to as 'information deficit models', and 'deliberative and inclusionary processes and procedures' (DIPS). The difference between the two models will be examined through the framework of the US discourse of 'civic environmentalism'. Using both examples and an analysis of recent literature, a distinction between 'narrow focus' and 'broad focus' civic environmentalism will be presented. It is argued that 'information deficit models' of public participation usually associated with 'narrow focus' civic environmentalism can successfully contribute to the 'environmental' aspects of sustainable communities. The paper concludes that DIPS and the greater sharing of control by citizens, non-governmental organizations and local governments offered by 'broad focus' civic environmentalism, are far more likely to result in a greater social capital, and a holistic appreciation of the inextricable links between environmental, social and economic characteristics of sustainable communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper extends previous research assessing the effects of environmental pollution on property values, and the specific issue of information disclosure requirements on future real estate transactions. Given that various information disclosure requirements were imposed in most US states during the 1990s, it is important to begin to understand their anticipated effects. Using a case of soil contamination in Corpus Christi, TX, USA, this paper applies the contingent valuation method using telephone survey data to investigate the effect of a split-sample information disclosure treatment concerning soil contamination on the willingness to pay of potential home buyers. The authors apply a mixture modelling approach to better explain the effect of the information disclosure requirement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a framework for analysing the standard policy of separating risk assessment from risk management. It presents an explicit, but stylized, model of the federal risk management system. In the model, a consumer faces a risky situation but is not the risk management decision maker. Political pressures on the actual decision maker lead to risk management errors. Separating risk assessment from risk management does not necessarily reduce the influence of political pressures. The paper concludes, however, that a strict separation may improve the risk management system from the point of view of the consumer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the causes of the 23% decline in 2030 US greenhouse gas emissions forecasts between 2007 and 2011. Dynamic regression modeling predicts that the Great Recession contributed to about 67% of the 2008–2009 emissions decline, but then fell to about an 18% share for the 2030 emissions forecast. An analysis of electricity generation forecasts show that switching from coal to gas contributed only 6% to the total 2030 decline. In contrast, regulatory impact assessments and policy analysis showed that state and federal policies were responsible for 46% of the 2030 decline in emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines the extent to which 20 municipalities in the Greater Vancouver region of British Columbia have included provisions in their community plans for reducing natural hazard risk and vulnerability. Findings show that the plans are generally lacking in hazard related factual information, goals, and policies, and in mechanisms to promote plan implementation. The plans also do not compare favorably to municipal hazard mitigation plans in the United States. The authors provide recommendations for provincial/state and municipal governments with respect to improving the quality of municipal plans and their capacity to enhance public safety. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Based on a case study of the Stadshaven port redevelopment in Rotterdam, this paper explores whether existing spatial planning mechanisms and processes can be used to facilitate local-level investment in climate-resilient public infrastructure and/or whether new processes and mechanisms are required to encourage investment in climate adaptation. The study reveals several key findings. First, a lack of conventional funding sources or formalised regulatory framework allowed room for experimentation with existing mechanisms and flexible strategies. Second, project planners are currently ambivalent towards introducing new mechanisms as a means to overcome implementation challenges. The case provides evidence about the role of the governance process, not simply as a means of system coordination that exists in isolation from institutional norms and values, but rather as a space for innovation, which can contribute towards reducing the financial gap associated with climate adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper identifies the optimal pollution level under the assumptions of linear, quadratic and exponential damage and abatement cost functions and investigates analytically the certain restrictions that the existence of this optimal level requires. The evaluation of the benefit area is discussed and the mathematical formulation provides the appropriate methods for that to be calculated. The positive, at least from a theoretical point of view, is that both the quadratic and the exponential case obey the same form for evaluating the benefit area. These benefit area estimations can be used as indexes between different rival policies, and depending on the environmental problem, the policy that produces the maximum area will be the beneficial policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been argued that regional collaboration can facilitate adaptation to climate change impacts through integrated planning and management. In an attempt to understand the underlying institutional factors that either support or contest this assumption, this paper explores the institutional factors influencing adaptation to climate change at the regional scale, where multiple public land and natural resource management jurisdictions are involved. Insights from two mid-western US case studies reveal that several challenges to collaboration persist and prevent fully integrative multi-jurisdictional adaptation planning at a regional scale. We propose that some of these challenges, such as lack of adequate time, funding and communication channels, be reframed as opportunities to build interdependence, identify issue-linkages and collaboratively explore the nature and extent of organisational trade-offs with respect to regional climate change adaptation efforts. Such a reframing can better facilitate multi-jurisdictional adaptation planning and management of shared biophysical resources generally while simultaneously enhancing organisational capacity to mitigate negative effects and take advantage of potentially favourable future conditions in an era characterised by rapid climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As population growth continues there is greater pressure to manage cities and regions sustainably. These pressures are particularly acute in Australia's fastest growing peri-urban regions. Despite efforts to contain and consolidate urban growth, pressure on the peri-urban interface remains a key challenge. The reliance on traditional regulatory approaches to manage land use change in high growth peri-urban areas is proving to be ineffective. The use of market-based instruments (MBIs) are among the many options available to planners and policy makers to manage growth and development. Tradeable development rights (TDRs) are one type of MBI that have been used widely throughout the US to preserve open space and agricultural lands; however, their application in Australia has been limited. This paper uses a simple case study approach to review two Australian peri-urban TDR cases based on the findings of a large-scale US TDR study. The findings suggest that any attempt to implement TDR programmes in Australia should have regard for the key factors found in successful US TDR programmes. Planners also need to develop an intricate understanding of the internal and external factors that influence peri-urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examines the determinants of Environment Management System (EMS) adoption by public wastewater treatment facilities in the US. Based on the literature, it considers the range of regulatory, market and political influences on EMS adoption. The paper also incorporates prior work on publicness theory to articulate possible sectoral differences related to voluntary policy adoption. Hypotheses are tested using ordered logistic regression on data from a national survey of public wastewater treatment facilities in the US. Findings indicate that public wastewater treatment facilities that perceive stricter environmental regulation and greater attention from environmental groups and the public are more likely to voluntarily adopt an EMS. In addition, facilities reporting a higher degree of publicness are more likely to adopt in response to politician demands and when they apply greater amounts of biosolids to land. The findings carry implications for policy makers who aim to encourage public sector voluntary initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper estimates the marginal willingness to pay for climate amenity in the US using hedonic pricing and wage models. Research identifies that higher January temperatures are an amenity and households are willing to pay approximately US$5.90 ($2004) per month for a 1°F increase in the January temperature. Unlike the January temperature, higher July temperatures and precipitation are both disamenities, and households seek compensation of approximately US$5.46 ($2004) per month for a 1°F increase in July temperatures and approximately US$4.50 ($2004) per month for a 1-inch increase in precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Government is the primary financer of conservation services, but conservation financing in government is rarely studied. This study makes two contributions to understanding conservation financing in government. First, it develops a framework to classify and analyse conservation funding. Applying this framework to the data from Florida county governments, this study finds that conservation funding has become more stable and secure. More resources are used for large and long-term capital projects that benefit not only the current generation but also future generations, which reflects the ultimate goal of conservation. Second, this research offers an explanation about why some governments spend more on conservation than others. The results suggest that conservation funding in government is the result of combined forces in environmental pressure of economic activities and budgetary politics. The paper concludes that government should develop a structured conservation funding strategy that includes close monitoring of environmental pressure and proper political and institutional responses to the pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While a number of studies have shown that blacks, Hispanics and the poor are disproportionately exposed to pollution hazards, particularly in the United States, there are much fewer that focus on the processes contributing to environmental injustices. This paper contributes to the environmental justice literature by exploring local environmental conflict over a pollution hazard (municipal solid waste) to further decipher the process(es) that may perpetuate environmental injustices. Through a Canadian qualitative case study involving in-depth interviews with residents, we emphasize important deficits in, and experiences of, public participation throughout the environmental assessment process. We do this by recounting the experiences of black residents from a small rural community near two landfills in Eastern Canada. We find that there are subtle processes – linked primarily to public participation – that create and sustain environmental injustices by ultimately denying residents the opportunity to say “no” to unwanted developments. This case highlights both the process of injustice as well as the experience of injustice. The procedural culprits contribute to the production and reproduction of environmental injustice, demonstrating that environmental injustice is not simply a result of exposure to pollution; environmental injustice is a result of a number of long established practices, which in order to be remedied, techniques must be tailored to be inclusive of an affected population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One consequence of the transition of rural communities from industrialised agriculture and natural resource extraction to sustainable development principles has been the rise of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). CBNRM entails collaborative efforts, typically involving local, state and federal agencies, private firms and landowners, non-governmental organisations such as environmental and economic development groups, and watershed councils. There are no agreed-upon metrics or even broadly accepted approaches for assessing the effectiveness of these new institutions. A good deal of work has been done on evaluating collaborative processes and some on environmental outcomes, but almost none on the socio-economic effects of their activities. To help fill the gap we have been conducting a long-term action research project in Oregon, an analysis of the most effective approaches to the design and implementation of measures of the socio-economic health of communities in which watershed stewardship organisations are active. In this paper we present one case, a participatory process developing socio-economic measures for monitoring CBNRM. We describe the process and the resulting measures. It is expected that the measures will be systematically updated and tracked by the community over the next decade or more. The case study illustrates the necessity and challenges of developing measures for CBNRM that are locally meaningful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a risk analysis that was conducted in order to estimate the adverse health effects anticipated from the potential collapse of a historically contaminated building. Towards this direction several dust dispersion scenarios were simulated, and the resulting concentrations of the contaminants of concern were compared to appropriate emergency exposure limits. The results indicate that irreversible or other serious health effects could occur, especially among the most vulnerable groups of the population. However, these worrying findings were helpful towards accelerating the approval process of the proposed remedial measures, which are expected to start shortly. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Does the contemporary managerial approach in policy support 'green' community planning in rural areas? This question is addressed using the Policy Arrangements Approach (PAA). When PAA was applied to rural policy in the USA and the Netherlands, we observed an increasing effect of a managerial approach in both countries over the last 10-15 years, including the use of performance contracts and evaluation tools and the promotion of self-sufficiency and public entrepreneurship at the community level. In this paper we discuss how this managerial approach affected green community planning in rural areas in the USA and the Netherlands. Community planning is analysed using four dimensions: discourse; actor coalitions; resources and power; and rules of the game. Our analysis demonstrates that the managerial approach reinforces state power and puts efforts to address the higher-order 'green' needs of a community at risk. Different approaches for creating opportunities which encourage the emergence of public leadership, as well as new institutional designs, are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policies such as the US Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA) mandate collaboration in planning to create benefits such as social learning and shared understanding among partners. However, some question the ability of top-down policy to foster successful local collaboration. Through in-depth interviews and document analysis, this paper investigates social learning and transformative learning in three case studies of Community Wildfire Protection Planning (CWPP), a policy-mandated collaboration under HFRA. Not all CWPP groups engaged in social learning. Those that did learned most about organisational priorities and values through communicative learning. Few participants gained new skills or knowledge through instrumental learning. CWPP groups had to commit to learning, but the design of the collaborative-mandate influenced the type of learning that was most likely to occur. This research suggests a potential role for top-down policy in setting the structural context for learning at the local level, but also confirms the importance of collaborative context and process in fostering social learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 2004 until 2006, reform of US agricultural subsidy programmes seemed a likely result of pressure from the World Trade Organization. Many groups saw this pressure as an opportunity to 'green' farm policy by crafting environmental service payments that could replace crop subsidies. Yet the 2008 US farm bill fell short of such drastic changes. This paper uses discourse analysis to trace the decline of prospects for reform of the farm bill, and a shift to incremental policy making between 2006 and 2008. It finds that, in addition to political and situational factors, striking discursive shifts altered policy debates and outcomes to create particular conservation impacts. It thus argues for broader use of rhetoric theory and discourse analysis to assess environmental policy. Implications for land conservation are presented in the context of interest group tactics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A basic proposition of 'agency theory' is that output-based performance incentives encourage greater effort. However, studies find that incentive schemes can distort effort if rewards for performance are discrete or non-linear. The Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) Community Rating System (CRS) is a flood mitigation programme with a non-linear incentive design. Under this programme, localities are incentivised to implement a mix of 18 flood mitigation activities. Each activity is performance scored, with accumulated scores corresponding to a percent discount on flood insurance premiums for residents that hold National Flood Insurance policies. Discounts range from 0 to 45% and increase discretely in increments of 5%. With multivariate statistical and Geographic Information Systems analytic techniques, tests are made to find whether observed changes in annual CRS scores for participating localities in Florida are explained by non-linear incentives, adjusting for hydrologic conditions, flood disaster histories, socio-economic and human capital controls that can plausibly account for local mitigation activity scores over time. Results indicate that local jurisdictions are discount-seeking, with mitigation efforts partially driven by the non-linear incentive design of the CRS programme. The paper ends with recommendations to improve the operation FEMA's flood mitigation programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the ongoing crisis in fire management, the US Fire Learning Network (FLN) engages partners in collaborative, landscape-scale ecological fire restoration. The paper contends that the FLN employs technologies, planning guidelines and media to articulate an FLN imaginary that co-ordinates independent efforts to engage in ecological fire restoration work without need of either hierarchal authority or collective social capital. This imaginary may allow the FLN to draw on the creativity and adaptive innovation of collaboration to reform fire management institutions and fire-adapted ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation programmes in the US have emphasised retirement of land from crop production as a mechanism for achieving multiple environmental benefits. Several features of these programmes, such as their eligibility criteria, participation incentives and length of contract, influence the performance of these programmes and their ease of implementation. The design of these programmes has evolved over time in an effort to increase environmental benefits while lowering costs. This paper reviews the key features of land retirement programmes in the US and their implications for programme effectiveness. In particular, it examines the potential benefits from spatial targeting of programme participants, linking contract length to the ecological services being targeted and relying more on science-based models for improving programme outcomes. Targeted land management focuses conservation practices on those portions of the landscape where they will achieve the greatest gains in environmental quality using limited programme budgets. The scientific basis for targeting conservation efforts is improving through better understanding of ecological and hydrological processes; however, better guidelines need to be developed to incorporate this understanding in developing decision support tools that local programme administrators can use effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban national parks were designed in the 1970s to bring nature and recreational opportunities to socio-economically disadvantaged communities in the USA. Using the theoretical frame of environmental justice, this paper discusses findings of a recent survey of visitors to Los Angeles' Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area - the United States' largest urban national park. Findings show park visitors were predominantly white, affluent, and lived nearby. People of colour travelled further, were significantly less likely to be return visitors, and were less inclined to use the park for active recreation. Seemingly, this park fails to meet the needs of the disadvantaged urban communities for whom it was created, a problem that may also affect other parks in the United States and potentially parks in other countries. Park planners and managers can take practical steps to increase accessibility to this park for people of colour and low-income earners, and should monitor other parks for patterns of ethno-racially differentiated access and utilisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper relies on a unique dataset collected during a national survey of US households to explore how different sources of information (print, television, radio, family/friends, work/school and others) influence the decision to start recycling. Although print media are influential, it is found that face-to-face communication (through family/friends or work/school) is the most effective medium to get people to start recycling. However, it is even better to provide households with recycling information from multiple sources. The respondents in this study identify concerns about storage space, time and the safety of recycling as the main obstacles to start recycling. In addition, age and ethnicity are statistically significant but not income or education. These findings should be useful for crafting information campaigns designed to boost recycling, although to be successful these campaigns need to incorporate findings from environmental psychology and knowledge of specific communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature in the US has extensively examined the policies of state and sub-state areas that are well known for their anti-sprawl measures. This has resulted in little knowledge of what is happening elsewhere. This paper provides a case study of one of the lesser-known states, Michigan, which is representative of the vast majority of non-growth management states. The study finds that Michigan has been influenced by trends from the better-known areas. This has led to a host of state, regional and local-level initiatives, sometimes wrapped in the language of economic development, aimed at curbing sprawl. However, there is little evidence that these initiatives are successful. This is primarily due to the absence of state level mandates for planning, a lack of funding and a strong home rule tradition. The findings are probably repeated in many states across the nation: a proliferation of initiatives, which, with only few exceptions, will not represent best practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife managers are increasingly faced with planning and implementing wildlife management programs in collaboration with local governments, user groups, businesses and citizens. The planning process is inherently political as each group attempts to advance its interests. Current scholarship on the theory and practice of planning for wildlife management falls short of accounting for the politics of these processes. It is hoped that this paper will contribute to a theory of planning that both addresses the actual practices of wildlife planners and serves as a guide for future action. To this end, the dominant conceptualization of wildlife planning will be outlined and the study will draw on empirical and theoretical advances in the fields of adult education, organizational analysis and regional planning to construct a more politically-informed theoretical framework for understanding wildlife planning. This framework asserts that planning involves two types of negotiation of power and interests: (1) substantive negotiations which address procedural aspects of planning and (2) meta-negotiations which address political dynamics of planning. An earlier study will then be re-analyzed to illustrate how substantive and meta-negotiations occurred in a case of suburban deer management in the Northeast United States. It is concluded that accounting for issues of power and interests in wildlife planning theory provides a more complete representation of what wildlife managers actually do when planning programs and provides a guide for future wildlife planning practice. Future analyses of planning processes in wildlife management, or natural resources management more broadly, may reveal new insights if the concepts used to guide the analysis reported here provide an understanding of the politics involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public agencies in the US have committed resources to encourage private investment in reusing contaminated sites. With public funds in short supply, the effectiveness of their efforts matters both to the agencies and the development community. This paper draws on a mail survey of private developers that uses conjoint choice experiments to investigate the relative attractiveness of incentives to promote residential infill on contaminated property. Results suggest protection from third party liability offers the most value, with protection from cleanup liability and relief from public hearing requirements also important. The findings indicate several opportunities for planners to promote infill on contaminated sites in a socially and environmentally appropriate manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current research in environmental planning supports decision making based on collaborative planning mechanisms. While current research clearly details the limitations to and prerequisites for meaningful public participation in general and for select environmental issues, there is little focus on them in brownfields redevelopment. In practice, the general assumptions are that brownfields redevelopment is an ideally situated policy issue for participatory planning. However, as this paper will illustrate through case study research, there are several situational prerequisites that must be met before there can be meaningful citizen participation in brownfields redevelopment. By highlighting these prerequisites, the author's goal is to mobilize research and policy efforts to overcome those limitations and to foster widespread meaningful participation in the redevelopment of brownfields in residential neighborhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Risk evaluation and assessment have been used as tools to regulate and manage the risks to consumers of eating self-caught fish that have high levels of contaminants. Armed with these risk assessments, health agencies issue consumption advisories, and in some cases, close some waters to fishing. Recently, regulatory agencies have used contaminant levels in fish as a benchmark for remedial action on contaminated sites, using human health risk assessment as the justification. The US Environmental Protection Agency's new surface water criterion for mercury is based on mercury levels in fish tissue. When multiple regulatory agencies have jurisdiction over the same waters or remediation site there is the potential for differing risk evaluations. Using the Peconic River on Long Island, New York as a case study, the paper examines how and why county, state, and federal health risk evaluations for fish contaminated with mercury differed. While the same risk methodology was applied by all agencies, the assessments were conducted for different purposes, applied different consumption and fish biomass assumptions, and arrived at different conclusions. The risk evaluations invoked to design fish consumption advisories use mercury levels currently in fish, and are designed to prevent current exposure. However, the risk assessments that provide a basis for remediation consider many different pathways of exposure (not just ingestion), and deal with long-term exposure. The risk evaluations, and recommendations promulgated by those agencies, differ because they have different goals, use different assumptions, and often fail to communicate among agencies. It is suggested that it is valuable to have these different levels of risk evaluations to adequately address health issues. However, there are policy implications, which include making the distinctions between the types of risk assessments, their methods and assumptions, and the rationale for these assumptions. Further, assessors and managers should involve all interested stakeholders (including regulators and state health officials) in discussions about the use of risk, the assumptions of risk assessment, and the goals of those evaluations. The difficulties in the case of the Peconic were not due to differences in the original data, but rather in the goals and type of risk assessments performed. If all deliberations had been transparent during all phases of the decision-making and management process, the conflicts within the minds of the public, regulators and other agencies might have been avoided. This case study suggests that more reliability, circumspection and transparency should be built into the process where multiple agencies and multiple objectives are involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent interest in understanding the human and ecological health risks of contaminants on lands in the United States has led some managers and public policy makers to use extensive narratives associated with maps and Conceptual Site Models (CSM) in their Vision statements. While narratives are descriptive, CSMs can graphically depict the sources, releases, transport and exposure pathways, and receptors, together with possible barriers to block pathways and reduce exposure. In most situations, vision statements and CSMs are developed for one site, providing no opportunity to understand how they function generally. This paper reviews a set of 31 Vision statements and CSMs developed for Department of Energy (DOE) sites to examine the use and importance of ecological data in the process. This analysis provides a framework for evaluating ecological resources and risk at contaminated sites generally. While data on human health risks were usually extensive, data on specific ecological receptors were sparse. Less than 70% of the sites mentioned endangered or threatened species, less than 40% provided even partial species lists for their sites, and less than 40% provided information on unique habitats. Almost no sites mapped the distribution of endangered/threatened species. Ecological receptors were treated as a class, without regard to whether they were terrestrial or aquatic, or sedentary or migratory. Only 29% of the sites referred to specific ecological risk assessments. Confusion existed with respect to routes of exposure, pathways of exposure, and media for exposure. Overall, the ecological information presented was not consistent across sites, making it difficult to compare ecological resources at risk, effects of remediation on ecological resources complex-wide, or to determine which resources were most important to protect if monetary resources are limited. One of the objectives of DOE in having sites develop these Vision statements was to achieve uniformity in information available for the public, managers, policy-makers, and decision-makers. Any variances from previously agreed-upon remediation will likewise require this detailed ecological information. The dataset indicates a clear need to delineate the key ecological information required for these stakeholders before effective decisions can be made across a wide complex of contaminated sites, and a list of potential indicators is suggested. This ecological information can be both qualitative and quantitative. Finally, the information developed for Vision statements (CSMs, maps) will be useful in ensuring continued human and ecological protection, and will contribute to the sustainable safety of remaining contamination on sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The redevelopment of brownfields has become a central component of government efforts to revitalize many US cities. While the focus of these efforts has concentrated on promoting industrial and commercial redevelopment, some cities have started to also consider converting brownfields into parks and open space as part of a more comprehensive renewal strategy. Based on a survey of 20 case studies, this paper identifies and discusses: (1) the primary issues involved in brownfield greening projects; (2) the benefits of such projects; and (3) the specific planning processes involved. The overall conclusion drawn from the survey is that numerous renewal-oriented benefits can ensue from greening projects, if there is extensive stakeholder commitment devoted to deal with its financial and development-oriented challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To manage ecosystems it is essential to understand physical properties and biological function, as well as the ecological services and social/cultural perceptions of a variety of stakeholders. Where land managers are required to make decisions about restoration, remediation and future land use, understanding attitudes and future land use preferences is essential. In this paper I synthesize data on five surveys of recreational rates and preferences for future land use for the Department of Energy's Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL). Subjects were interviewed at several well-attended events at different distances from INEEL, representing local and regional views. Between 24 and 59% of the subjects hunted, between 55 and 71% fished, and up to 87% camped, indicating potential for exposure if INEEL were open for recreation. Average recreational rates varied by location, with the Shoshone-Bannock Indians having higher hunting, fishing, hiking and camping rates than all others. There were significant differences in future land use preferences; subjects living close to the site rated nuclear material processing very high, while those living farther away ranked it intermediate. Indians ranked this use the lowest. Using the land as a National Environmental Research Park (NERP) was rated the highest (or nearly the highest) for all groups. Industrial uses were generally rated low by all groups. These data can be used by local planners and policy makers in decision making regarding levels of clean-up, future land use, future end-states and long-term protection and stewardship of these contaminated lands. The relative unanimity in future land use preferences for NERP and recreation, rather than new industrial purposes, provides guidance for remediation, suggesting that residential clean-up standards may be more stringent than required. Further, the relative approval of continued nuclear reprocessing (but not nuclear storage) also provides guidance for risk-based end-state planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Democratic theory holds that active participation in governmental planning and decision making is critical to furthering the public interest. As a result, public participation in urban planning in the US is arguably the most extensive and intensive in the world. Required by federal, state and local laws, citizen involvement is a staple of local plan making. However, as this paper shows, citizen interest in participating in the formulation of hazard mitigation policies in comprehensive plans is low, despite mounting evidence of perils to life and property from floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. Using evidence from case studies in Florida and Washington, the causes of disinterest are dissected and ways to increase public input to hazard mitigation policies in local comprehensive plans are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent interest in restoring urban ecosystems has engendered studies on public perceptions of these ecosystems and future land use. This paper examines the perceptions of people using the waterfront area of the New York/New Jersey harbour estuary about their use of the area, and how this environment could be improved. Pollution was viewed as the most important problem in New Jersey, and removing pollution was rated the most important way to improve the waterfront habitat. Using the remaining undeveloped area for natural habitat and to improve quality of life were rated as the most important uses of the waterfront. People valued the waterfront for walking, providing open green space, and as a place to commune with nature without people. Management options people favoured were removing pollution and cleaning up rubbish and adding educational signs and information brochures about the remaining, natural habitat. Age, income and education influenced which activities people said they undertook. For improvements to the waterfront: Hispanics rated adding educational signs and creating information brochures higher, Blacks rated building promenades as more important, and Asians and Whites rated improving habitat for birds and butterflies more important than others. The data indicate that the public has a firm understanding of the big picture (pollution in the region and locally), habitat improvement, and of the small improvements that can be done locally. Planners and managers could move forward on three fronts: source reduction, wildlife habitat improvement, and amenity (signs, brochures, cleaning up rubbish) development. Understanding how people use an environment, and wish to improve it, can provide valuable information for future restoration and management of urban environments generally, as well as for structuring a citizen advisory committee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water utilities that rely on surface water may be vulnerable to future droughts and floods, a vulnerability that may be magnified by climate perturbations as well as shorter-term and, in some cases, ongoing changes in the political and regulatory environment in which utilities operate. Unfortunately, day-to-day responsibilities currently occupy most utility operators, leaving little time to plan for inherently uncertain effects. The record of actual responses to past droughts and floods can be illuminating, however, particularly when placed in the context of plausible hydrologic disruption and pressures such as population growth, floodplain development and new regulatory demands. This paper draws on interviews with water utility operators in the northwestern USA to highlight opportunities and constraints that water utilities may face vis-à-vis such disruptions. Key considerations affecting vulnerabilities include water rights, institutional barriers to efficient utility operations, hazard management policy and the fiscal status of utilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the potential ramifications of an ageing US population for near-term and future environmental policy. The US Census Bureau estimates that the US population 65 years old and older will number 39 million in 2010, 69 million in 2030 and 79 million in 2050. The population 85 years old and older will number 5.6 million in 2010, 8.5 million in 2030 and 18.2 million in 2050. Relationships between environmental problems such as air pollution and global warming and older persons' health issues are examined. Also addressed are the potential implications for environmental quality of how older persons allocate their time and money. Conflicts about environmental policy within generations of older persons and between older persons and younger generations already exist and may escalate as older persons seek both to protect themselves from environmental risks and to enjoy environmental amenities and financial security. It is argued that environmental protection will eventually prevail over economic concerns, not only because current support for the environment is high and increasing among generations of soon to be older Americans but also because the prospect of substantially increased life spans will lead people to act more actively to reduce environmental risks and enhance the surrounding environments where they will live. To better meet the needs of an ageing population while at the same time protecting the environment, innovations are needed in ecosystem management, urban design and economic policies. Expanded research and development programmes are needed to support each of these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]