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Horse trekking is a non-competitive sport that, as other kinds of exercise, involves skeletal muscle effort and may implicate significant energy expenditure leading to stress. The aim of the current study was to assess the effect of trekking on metabolic and stress response as well as muscle damage markers in clinically healthy horses. Thirty horses were equally divided in 3 groups according to trekking course: Group A (trekking course 15 km long), Group B (trekking course 35 km long starting;), Group C (three trekking courses for three consecutive days; during the first day the trekking course was 25 km long, Group C

Among infection diseases transmitted by arthropods, the equine vector-borne diseases transmitted by ticks represent an emerging problem worldwide due to their morbidity and mortality and, in some cases, to their zoonotic relevance. Understanding the host immune/inflammatory response to the pathogens is crucial to develop effective methods of diagnosis, control and treatment. This study aimed to evaluate red blood cells (RBC), hematocrit (Hct), hemoglobin concentration (Hb), mean cell volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin content (MCH), mean cell hemoglobin (MCHC), platelets (PLT), white blood cells (WBC), leukocytes populations and serum protein pattern of Sardinian donkeys scored positive to tick-borne pathogens. Thirty donkeys were dived in 5 groups, six subjects each: Group 1, tested negative to pathogens (control group); Group 2, donkeys infected by Theileria equi; Group 3, donkeys infected by Ehrlichia equi; Group 4, donkeys infected by Rickettsia Rickettsii; Group 5, donkeys co-infected by T. equi, E. equi and R. Rickettsii. From donkeys blood samples were collected and haematological and serum protein profiles were assessed. One-way ANOVA showed lower red blood cells, haemoglobin, platelets, lymphocytes and neutrophils values, and higher eosinophils, basophils, serum total proteins, α2-, β- and γ- globulins values in donkeys infected by one or more pathogens compared to control group (P0.05). The study highlighted an immune and inflammatory response of donkeys positive to E. equi, T. equi and R. Rickettsii and represents a starting point for further investigations in the field to fill the gaps currently existing on the complex interwoven relationship between pathogen and host immune and inflammatory response in equids.

Physical exercise induces several adaptations involving modulation of the energetic pathways to meet the energy demand during physical exercise. The branched-chain amino acids, leucine in particular, are considered as the most relevant amino acids, especially for exercise physiology. In this study, the change of leucine, valine, and tryptophan concentration was investigated in athletic horses before and after different exercise type. A total of 40 sport horses were equally divided into 4 groups according to the exercise type: group A (jumping), group B (reining), group C (32 km ride), and group D (72 km ride). Blood samples were collected before (TPRE), immediately after (TPOST), and 30 minutes after (TPOST30) the race to assess leucine, valine, and tryptophan concentration. Two-way analysis of variance showed an effect of time and/or exercise on the serum leucine, valine, and tryptophan values in all groups (P < .01). Lower leucine and valine values were found in groups A, B, and D at TPOST and TPOST30 respect to TPRE, whereas group C showed higher values at TPOST and TPOST30 compared with the values found at TPRE. All groups showed increased tryptophan values at TPOST and TPOST30 compared with TPRE. Lower leucine, valine, and tryptophan values were found in group D at TPOST30 compared with the values found at TPOST. These dynamic changes suggest the involvement of amino acid metabolism during different exercise types. These findings are probably related to the complex physiological adaptations to exercise stressor that allow reestablishment of the homeostatic equilibrium of the organism.

Lithium (Li

Protection against infectious diseases can be obtained with vaccines generating immunogenic response through a combination of humoral and cellular immunity. In this study haematological and serum protein electrophoretic profiles of horses vaccinated against herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4) were evaluated. Blood samples were collected from 16 horses before (T0), after 24h, 48h, 72h, 1st week, 2nd week and 3rd week (T1I, T2I, T3I, T7I, T14I and T21I) from the first EHV vaccine-dose administration as well as before (TPRE

The physiological role of L-carnitine in equine species is worthy of investigation; however, the systemic content of free L-carnitine and its dynamic change in growing foals as well as in exercising horses are still poorly investigated. In this study, the influence of age and exercise on free serum L-carnitine levels was evaluated in equine species. Ten foals were monitored from 6 up to 18 months of age (group 1), whereas 60 horses were divided in six groups in accordance with their age: group 2, 2-year-old; group 3, 3-year-old; group 4, 4-year-old; group 5, 5-year-old; group 6, 6-year-old; group 7, 7-year-old. To assess the age and sex effect on free serum L-carnitine values, blood samples were collected from foals and horses. Adult horses (groups 2–7) were subjected to a simulate 1,660-m race, and blood samples were collected before the simulate race (TPRE), within 10 minutes (TPOST10) from the end of race, and after 30 minutes (TPOST30) from the end of race. The amino acid levels were influenced by age (P

This study aimed to investigate the differences in assessment of total proteins between the use of refractometric and biuretic methods in equine serum and plasma samples and to test the validity of the two methods at different storage conditions. Serum and plasma total proteins concentration from 60 nonhemolytic and nonlipemic equine blood samples was assessed using refractometric and biuretic methods. On serum and plasma samples albumin, triglycerides, cholesterol, glucose, total bilirubin, and fibrinogen values were also evaluated. Samples were analyzed immediately after centrifugation (T0), refrigerated at 4°C and analyzed after 24 hours (T1) and 48 hours (T2), stored under refrigeration at 4°C, and after 1 week (T3) of storage at −20°C. No statistically significant effect of method (P > .05) on serum and plasma total proteins levels was found. A significant effect of storage condition (P

In this study, the effect of acupuncture on skin temperature (TSKIN), including six body regions (neck, shoulder, ribs, flank, internal thigh, and back), rectal temperature (TRECTAL), serum levels of total proteins, hematocrit, magnesium, calcium (Ca), phosphorus, and chloride was evaluated in five Thoroughbred horses. Horses competed in two official races. For each race, animals were transported from their stables to the racetrack. Horses transported and competed in the first race represent the control group. Two weeks later, the same horses competed in the second race. Before road transport, they were treated with acupuncture. From animals, the TSKIN, TRECTAL, and blood samples were collected at rest; after unloaded, 30 minutes after unloaded, at rest in the transit box, at the end of the race, and 30 minutes after the race. A significant effect of transport and exercise was found on all studied parameters (P .05), in both groups. Transported and exercised horses subjected to acupuncture treatment showed statistically significant higher values of TRECTAL and TSKIN of flank (P

The neonatal period is a transitional phase between the fetal and newborn functions during which homeostatic mechanisms complete their maturation allowing the foal's adaptation to extrauterine life. Knowledge of these physiological conditions in newborn foals establishes the basis of their management and has important implications in health and welfare. This study aimed to evaluate the changes in lipid parameters in eight healthy full-term foals during the first month of life. From each animals, blood samples were collected every 3 days from day 1 until day 30 of life and were tested for serum total lipids, phospholipids, triglycerides, total cholesterol (total chol), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL chol), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL chol), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL chol). One-way repeated measures analysis of variance was applied to determine the effect of days of life on studied parameters. Significant effect of days of life was found on serum total lipids ( P P P

Raman spectroscopy is a rapid qualitative and quantitative technique that allows the simultaneous determination of several components, both biomolecules both chemical compounds, in the biological fluids to assess the metabolic status. In this study, the serum composition was evaluated in regularly trained athletic horses using Raman spectroscopy to identify biomarkers of sports performance. Five clinically healthy and regularly trained Italian Saddle horses were subjected to a standardized obstacle course (350 m/minute; eleven 1.25 high jumps) preceded by a warm-up. On the collected sera, at rest, immediately after exercise, 30 minutes, and 1 hour after the end of the exercise Raman measurements were performed using a diode laser with the excitation wavelength of 785 nm. The analysis of the obtained spectra allowed the identification of peaks and bands different in position and intensity among the experimental conditions. The acquired spectra, obtained from horse sera collected during the experimental protocol, were visually similar, except for the large band detected in the 1,250–1,800 cm−1 range. The spectral intensity of the Raman spectrum decreased after training and 30 minutes after the end of exercise respect to the before exercise value, to come to the basal value after 60 minutes the end of the exercise. In conclusion, we can claim the ability of Raman spectroscopy to reveal the metabolic status of horses after physical exercise.

The aim of this study was to assess whether acid-base profile exhibits changes in regularly trained show jumping horses undergoing increasing exercise workloads. Seven female Italian saddle horses were subjected to three different physical exercise trials of increasing workload identified as three exercise phases (EPs). During EPI horses were subjected to a standardized exercise test consisting of 15 minutes of treadmill, during EPII horses were subjected to a show jumping test (height, 0.9-1.1 m; course length, 300 m), during EPIII horses underwent two jumping sessions carried out over two consecutive days. Blood samples were collected at rest (TPRE), after exercise (TPOST), and 30 minutes after the end of exercise (TPOST30). The values of pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Pco2), partial pressure of oxygen (Po2), bicarbonate level (HCO3-), hemoglobin (Hb), and hematocrit (Hct) were measured. A significant effect of exercise workload and time (P < .001) on Po2, Pco2, HCO3-, Hb, and Hct values was found. The variation in the studied parameters resulted mostly reversible within TPOST30 in horses when subjected to EPI and EPII, whereas Po2, Hb, and Hct remained higher at TPOST30 than TPRE in horses when subjected to the second day of jumping section (EPIII) indicating a failure to recover. The results suggest that jumping sessions carried out over two consecutive days represent extra workload for horses, and this should be taken into account by veterinarian to prevent acid-base imbalance and for the maintenance of health and performance in equine athletes.

Physiological and hematochemical changes associated with exercise have been extensively investigated in equine species. It is known that stress elevates circulating levels of acute phase proteins (APPs). This survey evaluated whether horses trained with different training programs exhibit changes in APP levels after exercise event. Twenty Saddle Italian horses (11 geldings and 9 females, 9 ± 1 years old, body weight of 425 ± 35 kg) were divided into two equal groups according to the intensity of training programs they were subjected: group A was subjected to an intense training program, group B was subjected to a moderate training program. At the end of the training period, horses were subjected to a simulated exercise event (show jumping course of 400 m length with 12 obstacles). From horses, blood samples were collected at rest conditions (TREST) and after 12 and 24 hour from the end of exercise (T12 h and T24 h); the concentration of serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin, albumin, total proteins, iron, and fibrinogen was assessed. The circulating levels of SAA, fibrinogen, and iron were influenced by simulated exercise event (P

Physical exercise induces various physiological responses and metabolic adaptations that have not been completely elucidated. The monitoring of alterations in blood parameters related to exercise is required to detect subclinical conditions. In this study, changes in serum total proteins and globulin fractions (albumin, α1, α2, β1, β2, and γ-globulins) were investigated in 15 clinically healthy horses subjected to different physical exercise for 5 weeks. Animals were divided in three equal groups: group A performed an intense training schedule, group B performed a light training schedule, and group C included sedentary subjects. After 5 weeks, group B was subjected to the same training schedule used for group A and it was indicated as group B1. Blood samples were collected from all animals at rest conditions. During the first week, three blood samples were collected at first, third, and fifth day and afterward, once a week for additional 4 weeks. Two-way repeated measures analysis of variance showed a statistical effect of sampling time and of different training schedules on total proteins and albumin levels in groups A and B as compared with groups C and B1. Based on these results, it is evident that the interpretation of changes in electrophoretic parameters in athletic horses cannot be limited to the comparison with a static normal range, but must consider their dynamic evolution with the progression of training.

The aim of our study was to investigate whether the peripartum has any influence on platelet aggregation in the mare to characterize the role of platelets in mare's normal pregnancy. Ten healthy pregnant Italian Saddle broodmares were monitored during the peripartum (from 2 weeks before until 2 week after foaling). Blood samples were collected at 7-day intervals, except the first postfoaling sample collected within 24 ± 12 hours from parturition. A pool of 26 blood samples from nonpregnant, nonlactating mares was used as control. The obtained samples were tested for platelet aggregation using adenosine diphosphate as agonist. Significant differences ( P = .0002) were found between pregnant and control mares. The percentage of platelet aggregation increased significantly in pregnant mares starting 2 weeks before parturition. Our results support the hypothesis that a physiologically adaptive mechanism occurs in healthy periparturient broodmares to prevent excessive blood loss from damaged vessels at the time of delivery.

This study aimed to evaluate how selected clotting parameters and platelets' responsiveness change in healthy full-term foals during the first 4 weeks after foaling. Blood samples were collected from each animal every 3 days from day 1 until day 30 after foaling and were tested for prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), fibrinogen (Fb) concentration, platelet (Plt) count, percentage of aggregation and slope. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance, followed by Bonferroni post hoc comparison test, was applied to determine statistical effect of day of life on studied hemostatic parameters. Significant effect of time was found for PT ( P P P P = .19), whereas platelets aggregation changed ( P