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The Train-the-Trainer approach is widely used in Cooperative Extension education to efficiently disseminate research-based information to many clientele groups, including farmers. This paper compares the traditional Train-the-Trainer model to a comprehensive Collaborative Train-the-Trainer model and discusses weaknesses of the traditional model that are addressed in the Collaborative model. Sources of information used by farmers (growers) and overall effectiveness were measured through a survey instrument created and distributed to farmers in South and North Carolina. The Collaborative Train-the-Trainer model, which emphasizes peer-to-peer interaction and feedback loops, represents an enhanced approach for conceptualizing and implementing Extension educational programs.

COVID-19 challenges induced a U.S. meatpacking industry bottleneck. Ohio Extension identified the need and responded by creating a three-step hands-on training for teenage junior fair exhibitors. Ohio Extension Meat Scientist and graduate students assisted in demonstrating an on-farm hog harvest and processing event in collaboration with a local Extension office for 4-H and FFA teenagers. To add a practical perspective, a local hog-producing and harvesting family was asked to assist with the event. An online post-survey reflected 90-100% gains in five educational areas and 100% said they would a similar event in the future and recommend it to a friend.

This study explores the human dimensions of the broad-based adoption of Short Rotation Woody Crops (SRWCs) among farmers in North Carolina. We used an actor diagramming and tracing approach to explore factors influencing farmers' adoption of SRWCs. Results suggest four factors strongly influence the adoption process: (1) market availability; (2) education awareness; (3) funding; and (4) social networking. Based on these results, we recommend that Extension professionals use the following education modules to prompt the adoption of SRWCs practices and potentially adopt other new farming practices: (1) ecological sustainability; (2) financial considerations; (3) harvesting; and (4) community building.

Agricultural and extension educators frequently employ a variety of methods to provide farmers with information about conservation practices. The introduction of virtual programming brought on in response to the COVID-19 pandemic set the stage for analysis of farmer outreach preferences with respect to face-to-face (F2F) versus virtual outreach. Using survey data of individuals who participated in field days in Iowa, we segmented participants based on their F2F or virtual attendance. We compared the groups based on key variables such as water quality concerns, communication behaviors, outreach preferences, and demographics. Our work suggests that a broad and dynamic communication strategy, including both in-person and virtual events, offers greater opportunities for dissemination of ideas and increases access to content.

We used an online survey to document challenges experienced by aquaponic hobbyists (n = 81), producers (n = 117), and educators (n = 75). Responses were distilled into the following categories: 1) operations and management; 2) facilities, location, and system design; 3) knowledge and educational resources; 4) funding; 5) economic viability; 6) plant culture; 7) marketing and distribution; 8) fish culture; 9) human factors; 10) regulations and certifications. Training and research in these areas are needed to advance the aquaponics industry

Misconceptions regarding agricultural careers are exacerbated by increasing urbanization and are one of many differences in perspective between urban and rural communities. The One Georgia 4-H Urban-Rural Experience addresses this divide through a statewide youth exchange focusing on the agricultural sector. The program includes a multifaceted look at agricultural careers through visits to urban and rural communities. Focus group evaluations revealed the impact on youth through exposure to new careers, increased understanding of the diversity of agriculture, awareness of the interconnected nature of urban and rural communities, and a sense of belonging to a diverse group of youth.

School-based growing spaces support student engagement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning through authentic agricultural pursuits. We conducted a survey of Nebraska schools to characterize existing school-based growing spaces and to identify challenges limiting garden-based STEM learning. Our findings confirm the use of school-based growing spaces for kindergarten through 12th-grade STEM instruction, especially in the sciences. Opportunities for technology and engineering experiences are currently limited, and additional professional development support is needed to broaden garden-based STEM learning efforts. Our findings are relevant to current and future Extension efforts supporting school gardens, especially in rural agricultural communities.

Using a mixed model, we evaluated effects of national 4-H hippology and livestock skillathon contests on youths' content knowledge, 21st century skills, and postsecondary plans. Hippology participants gained significant knowledge in all topics except breeds, and livestock skillathon contestants gained significant knowledge in all topics. The contests were similar in their effects on development of 21st century skills and postsecondary plans. Gains in content knowledge indicate that contest preparation is an effective method for increasing youths' technical knowledge. Additionally, findings suggest that contest preparation is a viable venue for 21st century skill development and that such skill development is not specific to topic.

Research indicates that positive youth development (PYD) programming leads to improved developmental outcomes. Yet there continues to be a lack of clarity about how PYD programs are defined and measured. Therefore, Common Measures 2.0 was created for assessing 4-H youth development programs. We examined the universal skills (intrapersonal and interpersonal) and engaged citizenship scales of Common Measures 2.0 through a survey of 175 participants at a 4-H youth leadership conference. Intrapersonal and interpersonal skills were significantly positively associated with engaged citizenship. The universal skills and engaged citizenship scales showed acceptable factor loadings and Cronbach's alpha values. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

This article offers the Extension community a pathway to drought resilience and climate-related conversations through knowledge exchange workshops. In 2017, a "flash drought" affected eastern Montana, and ranchers in the region faced numerous challenges. Moreover, drought-favorable climate conditions are predicted to increase for the region. We held five workshops to facilitate an exchange of adaptive drought management strategies, focusing on key themes for drought resilience: (a) drought planning and adaptive management, (b) use of local knowledge networks, (c) flexible stocking and grazing, and (d) adaptation to shifting baselines. Extension can use this approach to foster multidirectional knowledge sharing to strengthen ranching resilience to drought conditions.

Extension educators need intercultural competence to communicate with international audiences and facilitate dialogue in diverse domestic communities. Although many Extension professionals have traveled abroad, experience abroad does not necessarily lead to intercultural competence without intentional intercultural development support. We describe a novel program designed to develop Extension educators' intercultural competence by involving them as mentors in an undergraduate agriculture study abroad program. Statements by the participating educators support increased ability to recognize and adapt to multiple frameworks, increased self-reflection, and enriched interactions and programming for their diverse communities.

The COVID-19 pandemic has restricted traditional delivery of Extension programs. Our group of Rutgers agricultural agents responded by developing a weekly webinar series to remotely continue agricultural consultations and provide an open forum for farmers. Pandemic-related topics included farm labor, compliance with state executive orders, supply-chain disruptions, livestock processing, farmer assistance programs, and other issues. Participation from 258 farmers, agricultural agencies, and other groups resulted in effective networking and timely delivery of information to the agriculture industry. By using available online tools, we were able to efficiently deliver Extension programming and resources to agricultural producers and industry partners. Our efforts may be informative for others as needs related to the pandemic evolve.

International Extension experiences can provide valuable outcomes to clientele. Careful planning is necessary to maximize the benefits to participants and the potential impacts of the tour. International agricultural sciences students can benefit from participating in these tours and greatly add to their success. In this article, we describe the main organizational steps we used and lessons we learned while planning and executing a comprehensive tour program to Brazil involving substantial contribution by an international student.

To assist Extension professionals working in Texas's Little River Watershed with efforts to educate landowners about reducing amounts of bacteria there, we assessed motivations for and barriers to landowners' adopting best management practices (BMPs). We surveyed 275 landowners in the watershed. Respondents were at least somewhat familiar with nine of 11 identified BMPs. Additionally, they agreed that 10 of 13 listed factors were motivators for adopting BMPs and that six of 14 listed factors were barriers to adopting BMPs. Extension professionals can help landowners move through the innovation-decision process by targeting educational programming and materials to motivations for and barriers to adoption of such practices.

To determine how Extension educators can use environmental education materials to develop life skills in youths, we correlated a national environmental education curriculum developed by Project Learning Tree (PLT) to the 4-H Life Skills Wheel. Youth development professionals can use the resulting correlations to determine which life skills the various PLT activities help develop. The correlation results also provide insights regarding how PLT activities help develop head, heart, and hands skills.

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is an often unrecognized problem in cow-calf herds. We describe a program we used to help producers identify and avoid practices that could increase their herds' risk for BRD. The greatest knowledge gains occurred for the topics of costs associated with BRD, BRD risks at the feedlot, and biosecurity measures. Through producer self-assessments, we found that the number of risky practices conducted by producers ranged from none to 22 per operation, averaging 10 per operation. Extension professionals should consider combining producer self-assessment with education on management as an effective strategy for informing producers of risks in their operations.

Practical aspects of curriculum development, especially that involving multiple authors, often are overlooked, but they are critical to moving a curriculum from concept to finished product. The Ohio 4-H Camping Design Team developed a competency-model-based curriculum for training the state's 4-H teen camp counselors. The team incorporated action steps and associated management tools to facilitate the curriculum development process. Action steps included establishing a timeline, using a template, tracking progress, and conducting an internal review. The action steps and tools the team used can be replicated by others developing curricula, training programs, and other resources for Extension audiences.

A whole-farm planning course in Idaho has evolved from an in-person course offered by a single instructor in one location to an online course to a hybrid learning course that combines online learning with in-person and webinar components offered simultaneously at multiple sites across the state. Evaluation data suggest that all three approaches have been effective at increasing knowledge and skills. The hybrid learning model allows for using technology to leverage faculty and farmer expertise and increase participant numbers while maintaining in-person interaction and experiential learning. Findings support the concept of the hybrid learning model as a tool for Extension audiences in rural states.

Recently, a new program model for describing and predicting the impact of 4-H on youths was proposed. The model's structure was confirmed statistically in preliminary testing. However, youth voice had not been included in the development of the model. This article describes a study intended to assess the alignment of the six thriving indicators presented in the model with the lived experience of youths. Results revealed alignment between youths' experience and the thriving indicators. Youths affirmed thriving as an accurate way to describe their 4-H experience and provided examples of how the thriving indicators match their experience.

Scientific literacy is essential for success of youth and adults in the 21st century. In 2017, Oklahoma 4-H Youth Development initiated a fellowship program to address scientific literacy throughout Oklahoma: the STEMist program. Through this program, college students with a background or interest in science are recruited, trained, and sent to teach science workshops to youths at various educational events during the summer months. In its inaugural year, the program reached over 2,000 youths. The program addresses scientific literacy, aids in career readiness, and promotes 4-H to audiences previously unaware of the positive impact it can have on today's young people.

Youths and parents in the California 4-H program have reported issues with communication and challenges in understanding the program. As a result, we developed a family handbook and other supporting documents to help youths and parents navigate the California 4-H program. This article addresses the development, dissemination, and reach of the handbook. Additionally, the article discusses future directions and implications for other Extension programs.

Dairy-related Extension programming is important in many states, but the economic impact of such programming has received little attention. We examined the impact of Know Your Numbers, an educational program offered by the Penn State Extension Dairy Team. Using follow-up evaluation data and the economic impact tool IMPLAN, we estimated that the program had a total financial impact of $9.5 million and an employment impact of 69 jobs in 2014. The overall financial impacts of the Dairy Team, given its abundance of other programming, likely are significantly higher. Our approach for estimating the economic impact of an Extension program can be used by others to understand and demonstrate the value of their work.

Educational campaigns are more complicated when members of our audiences hold scientific misconceptions related to new technologies. Our prairie strips research and education team produced a brief, focused video aimed to dispel a misconception related to the effect of prairie strip plants' roots on agricultural drain tiles in the Midwest. Our "Field Tile Investigation" video was based on the conceptual change framework from science education and featured a discrepant event. The goal was to move farmers, landowners, and their advisors to an understanding of prairie strips that was more compatible with the scientific standard.

Workers on prison farms in the United States commonly grow produce and row crops and raise livestock. Teaching good agricultural practices to prisoners and prison staff increases the safety of the food produced and reduces the likelihood of an illness outbreak. We developed a food safety curriculum for use on prison farms in Iowa. In developing the curriculum, we encountered many challenges that resulted in modifications in the content and delivery method. We present the content of the curriculum and provide educators with a better understanding of challenges and potential solutions related to working with prison farms.

To gauge community support for a proposed environmental education center and demonstration farm, we surveyed 514 local residents. Our intent was to assess community members' support for the project and relevant programming interests and to determine the roles that level of community satisfaction, perceived economic impact, and demographics played with regard to project support. We found that most community members supported the development and that levels of community satisfaction, perceptions of economic impact, background, gender, and age were significantly associated with level of support. Our research also revealed that community members were most interested in programs about nature and growing and preserving food and were not interested in technology-based programming.

The Graduate Extension Scholars program represents a novel approach that brings together graduate students, 4-H agents, and secondary agriculture teachers in an educational resource development project. We conducted process evaluation research based on program goals for the pilot implementation year using participant interviews and program artifacts. Program participants reported an overall positive experience and identified new programming and partnerships that would not have been possible without involvement in the program. Goals were enacted to varying degrees, with challenges occurring related to collaborative planning, educational module development, and building of partnerships between Extension and school-based educators. Recommendations for Extension program development are identified.

Grazing management concepts can be hard for learners to grasp in a classroom setting. A grazing demonstration plot is a useful field tool that Extension professionals can implement to visually illustrate how various grazing regimes affect grass health and yields. Specifically, the educator can show how forage harvest timing, frequency, and intensity affect above-ground plant biomass production. A grazing demonstration plot has become a tool of the trade for a small number of Extension professionals in Colorado's Front Range. As a result, land managers in the area have been better able to evaluate how to meet their own needs while considering the importance of addressing environmental impacts and stewarding the land for future generations.

Extension educators are increasingly using social media for outreach and information delivery. But are the Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube channels of the world reaching across cultures to non-English speakers, recently resettled refugees or immigrants, migrant workers, or other underserved Extension audiences? After producing and screening over a dozen educational videos dubbed into various languages, we have found videos to be empowering educational tools for engaging nontraditional audiences, especially when screened offline in public workshops. This article outlines techniques for using videos to specifically target historically underserved audiences and non-English speakers by integrating culturally important themes and language voice-overs.

Extension educators often seek new strategies for engaging minority youths in 4-H programs, especially young Black males. These strategies require programming developed in response to the context of this population. We offer insights into the social context of Black males and offer suggestions that will help educators develop identity and integrative site-based programs for this population.

Urban youth participation in agricultural activities has been linked to positive educational outcomes. This article explores the gender and racial differences in perceived knowledge gain and intended behavior change among youths participating in a youth urban agriculture workshop in 2015. Participants were students from underserved areas in Washington, DC. Female students and Black students had about half-grade higher (0.43-0.63 points) self-reported scores for knowledge change, whereas only female students showed an increase in intent to change behavior. Our results suggest that female students may learn at a faster rate than males and that experiential learning aids Black students in gaining knowledge.

Dialogue with stakeholders has been recognized as an effective educational strategy for addressing complex topics such as climate change. We report here on the Carbon, Energy, and Climate fishbowl discussion series developed by Michigan State University Extension to assist the state's agricultural community in understanding and adapting to the changing climate. Facilitated dialogue reduced barriers to communication and promoted cooperative learning for target audiences and the project team, generating useful information on the current status of climate change adaptation within Michigan's agriculture sector and revealing needs to be addressed by future Extension programming. Using a dialogue-based approach such as the one we describe can highlight challenges and opportunities Extension faces in addressing various complex issues with diverse audiences.

Agriculture's negative effect on water quality has become increasingly well documented. Farmers have a range of conservation practices available, yet rate of adoption is not optimal. Extension and other agricultural stakeholders play a key role in promotion of conservation practice adoption. We used survey data to examine relationships between farmers' integration in agricultural social networks and diversity of conservation practices used. Farmers who were more engaged in agricultural organizations and social networks tended to report greater diversity in nutrient best management practices. Conversely, less "connected" farmers reported less management practice diversity. Opportunities for Extension to engage with both groups exist.

The use of unmanned aircraft systems (UASs), or consumer drones, in agriculture has the potential to revolutionize the way certain farm practices are conducted and the way science, technology, engineering, and math principles can be taught. Currently, there is need for UAS training for both adults and youths, and that need will increase with the expected growth of the UAS industry. This article addresses the need to include UASs in Extension programming, the associated legalities, and the best types of UASs to use in such programming.

Citizen science is quickly becoming a valuable tool in the Extension professional's tool kit. This is the case whether you are a 4-H agent looking to involve youth in agriscience and agriculture-related science, technology, engineering, and math experiential learning activities or an agriculture and natural resources agent seeking to help stakeholders in your county or scientific community connect to address issues. This article outlines a number of existing resources within and outside Extension to support agents, professional researchers, and communities in coming together to understand, and ultimately improve, the state of their environment.

Today's Extension professionals are tasked with more work and fewer resources. Integrating social media campaigns into outreach efforts can be an efficient way to meet work demands. If resources go toward social media, a practical method for collecting metrics is needed. Collecting metrics adds one more task to the workloads of Extension professionals and their partners. Can metrics be collected in an efficient and effective long-term manner even when partners are involved? We propose a practical method for collecting social media communication campaign metrics that is easy to implement and allows for measuring engagement of users over time.

We conducted case studies on four Connecticut dairy farms to evaluate how well farmers implemented their nutrient management plans (NMPs). Our findings can help Extension educators develop programs to improve NMPs and NMP adoption by farmers. We identified three educational topic areas that would likely increase NMP understanding and acceptance: (a) soil testing protocol, results interpretation, and nutrient recommendations; (b) manure fertilizer-equivalent value, proper application, and effective distribution; and (c) costs and benefits of substituting on-farm manure for purchased commercial fertilizer. A new adaptive nutrient management program presents a timely opportunity for cost-effective and collaborative on-farm education efforts by Extension and the Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Extension serves an increasingly diverse community, with a number of program participants being new farmers, minority farmers, and low-income farmers. Since the 1980s, Washington State University Skagit County Extension has provided a tractor safety course to older youth farmers, aged 12 to 15. In 2010, a nonprofit farm incubator showed interest in having its members participate in the course, and new adult farmers and Latino farmers were introduced into a classroom of older youths. Meeting the needs of these distinct farming cohorts in a single classroom required a multimodal approach, the success of which is replicable in other Extension education programs.

We conducted a nonexperimental, descriptive study to better understand Oklahoma State University students' perceptions of water issues and relevant learning preferences using a 56-item survey instrument we based on the 2008 Water Issues in Oklahoma survey. In total, 103 agriculture students participated in our survey. Clean drinking water was their top concern, but few understood potential risks to water supplies. Additionally, participants expressed only modest interest in learning more about water issues. They indicated that they preferred learning via digital media and traditional fact sheets and expressed little interest in learning via apps, in-person events, and newspaper articles. Our results have implications for delivering water education programs to younger college-educated adults.

The purpose of the Delphi study described in this article was to determine barriers, challenges, and alternatives related to planning and implementing 4-H international visitor exchange programs. The Delphi panel comprised 21 Extension agents selected from two southeastern states on the basis of their experience and/or interest in international visitor exchange programming. The Delphi panel identified seven barriers and 16 challenges related to planning and implementing 4-H international visitor exchange programs and 25 alternatives useful for overcoming those barriers and challenges. The study led to practical recommendations for educating agents for the task, recruiting and training host families, and preparing outbound youths.

With a focus on the Commonwealth of Virginia, we reviewed literature and data associated with the prevalence and persistence of women's engagement in agriculture from youth-focused programs through to college and employment in order to learn which models of outreach may best attract women to and retain women in agricultural careers. We found that girls in Virginia have strong participation in early agriculture-related activities but that women constitute the minority of primary farm owners. Our systematic literature review shows that using science, technology, engineering, and math models of outreach and reframing agriculture as a career that builds communities and cares for the planet can engage more women in agriculture.

This article presents an analysis of preferred knowledge sources for beginning farmers and differences in knowledge networks between "heritage" and "nonheritage" farmers. The purpose of the analysis is to support the reassessment of training, technical assistance, and other needs of beginning farmers to be able to develop more precisely targeted training and educational programming for them. Data were drawn from a series of six listening sessions conducted across Kentucky from January through July 2013. We present three concluding recommendations for enhancing the relevance of Cooperative Extension by emphasizing its role as a "connector" of available resources to beginning farmers.

This article describes an innovative evaluation plan we employed to capture outcomes of a multiyear beginning farmer program and, specifically, highlights the facilitation technique we used to document short-term and intermediate goals of the program that matched U.S. Department of Agriculture grant requirements and Extension administration priorities. Developing a comprehensive, two-phase evaluation plan based on a well-conceived logic model was a key factor in the success of the New FARM program. Our midterm and end-of-program evaluations addressed often sought, but sometimes difficult to obtain, intermediate goals from the logic model and demonstrated program effectiveness to a variety of funders.

In this article, occupational safety interventions for agriculture-related jobs, specifically in aquaculture, are reviewed. Maintaining quality of life and avoiding economic loss are two areas in which aquaculturists can benefit by incorporating safety protocols and interventions on their farms. The information in this article is based on farm safety issues the authors identified in Alabama, Idaho, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and West Virginia (as well as in the United Kingdom). Extension professionals can use this information to advise farming clientele on safety measures that will increase their likelihood of avoiding injury.

One goal of Extension is to provide practical information that makes a difference to producers. Cow Herd Appraisal Performance Software (CHAPS) has provided beef producers with production benchmarks for 30 years, creating a large historical data set. Many such large data sets contain useful information but are underutilized. Our goal was to create a 20-year data set (CHAPS20Y) to examine trends in beef production from 1994 to 2013. In this article, we describe the CHAPS program and the process used to select herds for CHAPS20Y. We hope to publish additional related articles that will examine trends in calving distributions, reproduction, and growth and discuss implications for producers and Extension.

Forest-based production on U.S. farms totaled $653.2 million in 2012, admittedly a small portion of total farm wealth. However, despite the effects of the recent economic downturn, on-farm forest product revenues still approached the gate value of North Carolina timber in 2012, which was $730.6 million. Providing the research-based information, technology transfer, and educational programs farmers need to manage trees to generate income while preserving the ecosystem in a manner that is socially acceptable requires a multidimensional approach by Extension specialists working across disciplines. Two examples of multidimensional approaches, one centered on audience segmentation for targeted outreach and the other on forest economic development, are proposed and discussed.

Viewing of online videos and television segments has become a popular and efficient way for Extension audiences to acquire information. This article describes a unique approach to teaching on camera that may help Extension educators communicate their messages with comfort and personality. The S.A.L.A.D. approach emphasizes using relevant teaching tools to decrease anxiety, implementing effective questioning as a natural segue to a deeper discussion in a follow-up segment, and sharing examples or case studies in the form of stories with characters. Extension educators should engage with local television outlets and their own web cameras to reach broader and more diverse audiences.

Extension personnel, agricultural companies, and contract researchers invest a great deal of resources through time, money, and manpower to educate crop consultants, producers, students, and new employees. Creating an in-field, real world, and hands-on learning environment affords an opportunity to engage individuals to learn in ways that cannot be readily duplicated in a classroom setting. However, planning and conducting field demonstrations takes time and foresight. Clear objectives, teamwork, and adequate resources are vital. The information provided in this article is intended to serve as a "roadmap" of the key elements that will lead to a successful field demonstration tour.

Farmers and agricultural professionals who are aware of species likely to invade agricultural landscapes can be active participants in efforts to detect invasive species. To reach this audience we created a short invasive species program and added it to the existing and required pesticide applicator recertification workshops. We highlighted four invasive species that can affect rural landscapes. Publications were made available. As a result, farmers and agricultural professionals were very receptive to learning about invasive species that may affect their agricultural business. Teaching about invasive species through pesticide applicator programs is an effective way to reach agricultural and rural audiences.

Extension faces ever-changing problems, which can be addressed by modifying successful tools rather than inventing new ones. The Master Gardener program has proven its effectiveness, but the cost and time commitment can make it inaccessible to rural, low-income communities, where training in home gardening may address issues of food access and food related health. A modified Master Gardener program was developed, with emphasis on low cost, flexible training and service. At the conclusion of the program, clients perceived increased skill and confidence at levels comparable to Master Gardeners and completed 179 volunteer service hours, reaching over 4,000 clients.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) educational courses provide produce growers with the fundamental information for producing and processing safe produce. To determine the effectiveness of the current 7-hour GAP course provided in Iowa, growers were surveyed before and 7-14 days after the course to determine changes in knowledge and opinions. Results show that growers positively changed their knowledge and opinions on key food safety principles and regulations, which provides evidence that Extension programming is an effective method to educate small growers. Food safety educators should focus their training on practical methods for documentation, sanitation, and facilities.