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"While the fundamental approach to conducting an LCA of emerging technologies is akin to that of LCA of existing technologies, emerging technologies pose additional challenges. Despite the growing interest in applying LCA at early stages of technology development, there is a lack of systematic guidance for LCA practitioners to evaluate emerging technologies". While the fundamental approach to conducting an LCA of emerging technologies is akin to that of LCA of existing technologies, emerging technologies pose additional challenges. [Extracted from the article]

The objective of this paper is to explain the cause and proceedings of the 1930s Great Depression from a biophysical economic perspective. The Depression was a painful episode in the socio‐technological transition from a coal/railroad regime to one based on hydrocarbons, motor vehicles, and electricity. The beginning—the Great Crash of October 1929—corresponded with drastic cuts in oil prices and announcement of oil supply certainty, following discovery of huge oilfields in the US Southwest. The Depression principally centered on a change from railroads to motor‐vehicle‐based transportation, but was long and drawn‐out due to the hegemonic power that the railroads held over the US economy. The late 1920s saw increased use of hydrocarbon‐based technologies, but the emerging technologies were still reliant on the old technological system. Methods of biophysical economics, mapping energy flows to capital formation, show the critical role of railroads in the Depression. In 1929, railroads accounted for 24% of the non‐residential capital stock; they delivered between 70% and 76% of energy needs; and 69% of energy required for capital formation. Thus a hypothesis emerges that dwindling investment in the railroads was a major constraint on the economy. In biophysical terms, the US economy's main energy delivery system—coal carried by railcars—was hamstrung. Energy flow Sankey diagrams for 1929 and 1939 show the gradual change in energy systems that occurred over the Depression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life cycle assessment (LCA) analysts are increasingly being asked to conduct life cycle‐based systems level analysis at the earliest stages of technology development. While early assessments provide the greatest opportunity to influence design and ultimately environmental performance, it is the stage with the least available data, greatest uncertainty, and a paucity of analytic tools for addressing these challenges. While the fundamental approach to conducting an LCA of emerging technologies is akin to that of LCA of existing technologies, emerging technologies pose additional challenges. In this paper, we present a broad set of market and technology characteristics that typically influence an LCA of emerging technologies and identify questions that researchers must address to account for the most important aspects of the systems they are studying. The paper presents: (a) guidance to identify the specific technology characteristics and dynamic market context that are most relevant and unique to a particular study, (b) an overview of the challenges faced by early stage assessments that are unique because of these conditions, (c) questions that researchers should ask themselves for such a study to be conducted, and (d) illustrative examples from the transportation sector to demonstrate the factors to consider when conducting LCAs of emerging technologies. The paper is intended to be used as an organizing platform to synthesize existing methods, procedures and insights and guide researchers, analysts and technology developer to better recognize key study design elements and to manage expectations of study outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Prospective environmental assessment of emerging technology is necessary in order to inform designers of beneficial changes early in a technology's development, and policy makers looking to fund projects and nudge manufacturers toward the most sustainable application of a technology. Existing analyses often have shortcomings such as failing to consider the environmental impacts in all stages of a product's life cycle; implicitly assuming that the emerging technology will be cost‐effective wherever it is technically viable; and assuming optimistic application scenarios that discontinue long‐established trends in human behavior. In this article, we propose a new approach, complementary to the prospective and anticipatory life cycle assessment literature, addressing the above concerns and attempting to make sense of the large uncertainties inherent in such analyses by using distributions to model all the inputs. The paper focuses on emerging manufacturing technologies, such as incremental sheet forming (ISF), but the issues examined are also applicable to new end‐use products, such as autonomous vehicles. This paper makes use of approaches (such as Bass modeling and product cannibalization considerations) familiar to those in the business community who anticipate market diffusion of a new technology and the effect on existing technology sales. The proposed methodology is demonstrated by estimating the potential environmental impacts in the U.S. car industry by 2030 of an emerging double‐sided ISF process. Energy and cost models of ISF and drawing are used to estimate potential mean savings of around 100 TJprimary and 60 million U.S. dollars per year by 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent literature, prospective application of life cycle assessment (LCA) at low technology readiness levels (TRL) has gained immense interest for its potential to enable development of emerging technologies with improved environmental performances. However, limited data, uncertain functionality, scale up issues and uncertainties make it very challenging for the standard LCA guidelines to evaluate emerging technologies and requires methodological advances in the current LCA framework. In this paper, we review published literature to identify major methodological challenges and key research efforts to resolve these issues with a focus on recent developments in five major areas: cross‐study comparability, data availability and quality, scale‐up issues, uncertainty and uncertainty communication, and assessment time. We also provide a number of recommendations for future research to support the evaluation of emerging technologies at low technology readiness levels: (a) the development of a consistent framework and reporting methods for LCA of emerging technologies; (b) the integration of other tools with LCA, such as multicriteria decision analysis, risk analysis, technoeconomic analysis; and (c) the development of a data repository for emerging materials, processes, and technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This paper studies drivers for eco‐innovation in Russian manufacturing firms on a sample of 2,212 innovative firms, of which over 600 introduced eco‐innovations. The companies in our sample specifically mention environmental regulation as a reason for engaging in eco‐innovations. Furthermore, we show that those firms who engage in eco‐innovations are motivated even stronger by the desire to increase resource efficiency. Companies under state ownership are especially prone to a higher likelihood to invest. We conclude that regulations are mostly relevant to the late comers who are obliged to follow minimum standards. On the other hand, the state uses its controlling influence to press companies under their control to exceed these minimum standards. Thus, we argue, state ownership does indeed have an influence on both the likelihood to eco‐innovate and on the levels of spending. Eco‐innovative state‐owned companies are only prone to invest in eco‐innovations, if they get additional money. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method to evaluate the environmental impacts of technologies from cradle to grave. However, LCAs are commonly defined in terms of the consumption of a single unit of a product and thus ignore scaling issues in large‐scale deployment of technologies. Such product‐level LCAs often do not consider capital manufacturing capacity and supply chain bottlenecks that may hinder the rapid, widespread uptake of emerging technologies entering the market; emerging technologies often require the expansion of existing supply chains or the development of entirely new supply chains, such as the manufacturing of novel materials. As a result, such LCA studies are limited in their ability to realistically assess impacts at the macro‐scale and thus to guide large‐scale decisions. In this work, we present ECOPT2, a generalized adaptable model that combines these constraints to the LCA approach using a mathematical programming approach and dynamic stock modeling. ECOPT2 combines LCA factors with transition scenarios from energy systems models to determine the environmentally optimal deployment of new technologies while accounting for material circularity constraints and barriers to uptake. We also introduce the structure of the software tool and demonstrate its features using a stylized vehicle electrification scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars, politicians, and practitioners have recently advocated that eco‐innovation (EI) is critical to achieve the circular economy (CE) vision. While much of the available body of knowledge on EI has predominantly focused on "eco‐efficient" incremental technological innovation, a successful CE transition requires systemic "eco‐effective" CE innovation. Yet, little is known about what barriers and drivers are stimulating systemic CE innovation in different sectors and regions. This research aims to deliver an identification of major CE barriers and drivers that impede or facilitate systemic "eco‐effective" CE innovation in the European polyurethane plastics industry. A hybrid research approach is applied using an original combination of the inductive GABEK method ("GAnzheitliche BEwältigung von Komplexität"—holistic processing of complexity) with deductive consideration of existing theories. Novel findings indicate that barriers to CE innovation largely materialize on individual firm and intra‐industrial levels, while drivers to CE innovation primarily manifest beyond immediate industrial boundaries (inter‐/cross‐industrial). The key contribution lies on revealing the necessity to reframe the focus from mere individual "optimization", which has been primarily discussed in the contemporary EI literature, to a collective (horizontal) "coordination" challenge across industries to enable a functional CE innovation. In addition, five strategic deliberations are proposed to facilitate and further advance the management of systemic CE innovation activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low‐carbon development is associated with eco‐industrial parks (EIPs), but whether a causal relationship exists is unknown. A growing body of evidence from environmental engineering studies suggests that EIPs reduce carbon emissions, but few economic studies have assessed the causality, channels, and heterogeneity of this relationship. This study uses the staggered difference‐in‐difference method to construct a quasi‐natural experiment to assess the impact of national‐level EIPs on low‐carbon development. The empirical results reveal that EIPs help achieve low‐carbon development in China. Specifically, EIPs reduce the carbon intensity of the pilot cities by 7.2%. The channel analysis reveals that EIPs advance technological innovation, stimulate the Porter effect, and upgrade the industrial structure. Regional heterogeneity analysis further reveals that EIPs are more conducive to low‐carbon development in pilot cities in southern China, cities along the coast, and cities on the east of the Hu line. Further analysis shows that EIPs depress the peak of the environmental Kuznets curve and help achieve the turning point early. Moreover, this study offers fresh cases and patterns for the construction of EIPs in China. This study contributes to an in‐depth understanding of the role of EIPs in the low‐carbon transition in the largest developing country and provides inspiration for further policy optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The urgency of tackling global environmental issues calls for radical technological and behavioral changes. New prospective (or ex ante) methods are needed to assess the impacts of these changes. Prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) can contribute by detailed analysis of environmental consequences. A new stream of research has taken up the challenge to create prospective life cycle inventory (LCI) databases, building on projections of integrated assessment models to describe future changes in technology use and their underlying environmental performance. The present work extends on this by addressing the research question on how to project life cycle impact assessment methods for water scarcity consistent with prospective LCI modeling. Water scarcity characterization factors are projected from 2010–2050 using the AWARE method, based on SSP‐RCP scenario results of the integrated assessment model IMAGE. This work is coupled with prospective LCI databases, where electricity datasets are adapted based on the energy component of IMAGE for the same scenario. Based on this, an LCA case study of water desalination for the steel industry in Spain is presented. The resulting regional characterization factors show that some regions (i.e., the Iberian Peninsula) could experience an increase in water scarcity in the future. Results of the case study show how this can lead to trade‐offs between climate change and water scarcity impacts and how disregarding such trends could lead to biased assessments. The relevance and limitations are finally discussed, highlighting further research needs, such as the temporalization of the impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the author examines the environmental impacts of demand side and renewable energy resources technology. Topics discussed include challenge regarding usage and supply of energy around the world; need for designing systems and technologies in order to minimize bad impacts of renewable energy resources on the environment; and importance of understanding link between demand and supply-side for using energy in developing efficient technologies through through sustainable energy.

The circular economy (CE) aims at cycling products and materials in closed technical and biological loops. Cradle to cradle (C2C) operationalizes the CE with a product design concept rooted in the circulation of "healthy" materials because contamination of materials with substances of concern hampers cycling and may pose risks to people in contact with them. Extant research shows that barriers often hinder organizations from successfully pursuing cradle‐to‐cradle product innovation (CPI). Innovation community theory helps to explain how to overcome barriers and further the innovation process by taking a microlevel perspective on intra‐ and interorganizational collaboration of individual promotors (or champions). We elaborate innovation community theory with a longitudinal embedded case study of a C2C frontrunner company with the goal to get a precise understanding of how promotors collaborate in the CPI process. Our contribution is threefold: We identify eight collaboration mechanisms used between promotors to sequentially overcome a hub firm's individual, organizational, value chain, and institutional level barriers to circularity. Second, we differentiate these mechanisms according to their cooperative and coordinative facets and put emphasis on the coordinative functions of those mechanisms linked to the C2C standard. Third, we highlight the importance of promotors at the linking level who facilitate the CPI process as intermediaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimating the environmental impact of emerging technologies at different stages of development is uncertain but necessary to guide investment, research, and development. Here, we propose a systematic procedure to assess the future impacts of emerging technologies. In the technology development stage (technology readiness level < 9), the recommended experience mechanisms to take into account are (a) process changes, (b) size scaling effects, and (c) process synergies. These developments can be based on previous experience with similar technologies or quantified through regression or engineering dimension calculations. In the industrial development phase, (d) industrial learning, based on experience curves or roadmaps, and (e) external developments should be included. External developments, such as changes in the electricity mix can be included with information from integrated assessment models. We show the applicability of our approach with the greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint evaluation for the production of copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) photovoltaic laminate. We found that the GHG footprint per kilowatt peak of produced CIGS laminate is expected to decrease by 83% going from pilot to mature industrial scale production with the largest decrease being due to expected process changes. The feasibility of applying our approach in practice would greatly benefit from the development of a database containing information on size scaling and experience rates for a wide variety of materials, products, and technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of nanostructured materials has been recently proposed in the field of environmental nanoremediation. This approach consists in using nanomaterials not directly, but as building blocks for the design of nano‐porous micro‐dimensional systems, overcoming the eco‐ and health‐toxicology risks generally associated with the use of nano‐sized technologies. Herein we report the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) as an eco‐design tool for optimizing the production of cellulose nanosponges (CNS), nanostructured materials recently developed for water remediation purposes. LCA was applied from the acquisition of raw materials to the synthesis of CNS (from cradle‐to‐gate), considering three production systems, from the lab‐level to a modeled scale‐up system. The lab‐scale LCA identified the main environmental hotspots, namely the energy‐consuming steps and the final purification of the material (washing step). In a second lab‐scale production, an improvement action could be implemented, switching the washing solvent from methanol to water and decreasing the washing temperature. A second LCA showed a reduced contribution to the impacts from the materials, while the global impacts remained within the same order of magnitude. A simulated scale‐up of the process allowed to optimize the energy‐consuming steps and the water consumption, through internal recycling. A third LCA assessed the resulting benefits and a decrease in the global impacts by two orders of magnitude. Our study contributes to the discussion of LCA community, providing a focus on the importance of scaling‐up of emerging technologies, namely nanostructured porous materials, highlighting the benefits of a LCA based approach since the very beginning of product design (eco‐design). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanomaterials are expected to play an important role in the development of sustainable products. The use of nanomaterials in solar cells has the potential to increase their conversion efficiency. In this study, we performed a life cycle assessment (LCA) for an emerging nanowire‐based solar technology. Two lab‐scale manufacturing routes for the production of nanowire‐based solar cells have been compared—the direct growth of GaInP nanowires on silicon substrate and the growth of InP nanowires on native substrate, peel off, and transfer to silicon substrate. The analysis revealed critical raw materials and processes of the current lab‐scale manufacturing routes such as the use of trifluoromethane (CHF3), gold, and an InP wafer and a stamp, which are used and discarded. The environmental performance of the two production routes under different scenarios has been assessed. The scenarios include the use of an alternative process to reduce the gold requirements—electroplating instead of metallization, recovery of gold, and reuse of the InP wafer and the stamp. A number of suggestions, based on the LCA results—including minimization of the use of gold and further exploration for upscaling of the electroplating process, the increase in the lifetimes of the wafer and the stamp, and the use of fluorine‐free etching materials—have been communicated to the researchers in order to improve the environmental performance of the technology. Finally, the usefulness and limitations of lab‐scale LCA as a tool to guide the sustainable development of emerging technologies are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: While life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool often used to evaluate the environmental impacts of products and technologies, the amount of data required to perform such studies make the evaluation of emerging technologies using the conventional LCA approach challenging. The development paradox is such that the inputs from a comprehensive environmental assessment has the greatest effect early in the development phase, and yet the data required to perform such an assessment are generally lacking until it is too late. Previous attempts to formalize strategies for performing streamlined or screening LCAs were made in the late 1990s and early 2000s, mostly to rapidly compare the environmental performance of product design candidates. These strategies lack the transparency and consistency required for the environmental screening of large numbers of early‐development candidates, for which data are even sparser. We propose the Lifecycle Screening of Emerging Technologies method (LiSET). LiSET is an adaptable screening‐to‐LCA method that uses the available data to systematically and transparently evaluate the environmental performance of technologies at low readiness levels. Iterations follow technological development and allow a progression to a full LCA if desired. In early iterations, LiSET presents results in a matrix structure combined with a "traffic light" color grading system. This format inherently communicates the high uncertainty of analysis at this stage and presents numerous environmental aspects assessed. LiSET takes advantage of a decomposition analysis and data not traditionally used in LCAs to gain insight to the life cycle impacts and ensure that the most environmentally sustainable technologies are adopted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The use of global, multiregional input‐output (MRIO) analysis for consumption‐based (footprint) accounting has expanded significantly over the last decade. Most of the global studies on environmental and social impacts associated with consumption or embodied in international trade would have been impossible without the rapid development of extended MRIO databases. We present an overview of the developments in the field of MRIO analysis, in particular as applied to consumption‐based environmental and social footprints. We first provide a discussion of research published on various global MRIO databases and the differences between them, before focusing on the virtual laboratory computing infrastructure for potentially making MRIO databases more accessible for collaborative research, and also for supporting greater sectoral and regional detail. We discuss work that includes a broader range of extensions, in particular the inclusion of social indicators in consumption‐based accounting. We conclude by discussing the need for the development of detailed nested MRIO tables for investigating linkages between regions of different countries, and the applications of the rapidly growing field of global MRIO analysis for assessing a country's performance toward the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The rapid technological evolution and adoption of consumer electronics highlights a growing need for adaptive methodologies to evaluate material consumption at the intersection of technological change and increasing consumption. While dematerialization and the circular economy (CE) have both been proposed to mitigate increasing material consumption, recent research has shown that these methods may be ineffective at achieving net material use reduction: When focused on specific products, these methods neglect the effects of complex interactions among and increasing consumption of consumer electronic products. The research presented here develops and applies a material flow analysis aimed at evaluating an entire "product ecosystem," thereby including the effects of increasing consumption, product trade‐offs, and technological innovations. Results are then used to evaluate the potential efficacy of "natural" dematerialization (occurring as technology advances or smaller products substitute for larger ones) and CE (closing the loop between secondary material supply and primary material demand). Results show that material consumption by the ecosystem of electronics commonly used by U.S. households peaked in 2000. This consumption relies on increasingly diverse materials, including gold, cobalt, and indium, for whom secondary supply is still negligible, particularly given low recovery rates, often less than 1%. Potential circularity metrics of material "dilution," "dispersion," and "demand mismatch" are also evaluated, and indicate that CE approaches aimed at closing the loop on consumer electronic material still face several critical barriers particularly related to design and efficient recycling infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The challenge of assessing emerging technologies with life cycle assessment (LCA) has been increasingly discussed in the LCA field. In this article, we propose a definition of prospective LCA: An LCA is prospective when the (emerging) technology studied is in an early phase of development (e.g., small‐scale production), but the technology is modeled at a future, more‐developed phase (e.g., large‐scale production). Methodological choices in prospective LCA must be adapted to reflect this goal of assessing environmental impacts of emerging technologies, which deviates from the typical goals of conventional LCA studies. The aim of the article is to provide a number of recommendations for how to conduct such prospective assessments in a relevant manner. The recommendations are based on a detailed review of selected prospective LCA case studies, mainly from the areas of nanomaterials, biomaterials, and energy technologies. We find that it is important to include technology alternatives that are relevant for the future in prospective LCA studies. Predictive scenarios and scenario ranges are two general approaches to prospective inventory modeling of both foreground and background systems. Many different data sources are available for prospective modeling of the foreground system: scientific articles; patents; expert interviews; unpublished experimental data; and process modeling. However, we caution against temporal mismatches between foreground and background systems, and recommend that foreground and background system impacts be reported separately in order to increase the usefulness of the results in other prospective studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The circular economy (CE) is essential for decoupling economic growth from resource consumption and environmental impacts. However, effective implementation requires a systemic change across supply chains, involving both technological and nontechnological innovations. Frameworks are beginning to emerge to foster CE thinking in organizations. However, literature review carried out as part of this research has revealed gaps in their ability to fulfil CE requirements. Furthermore, few frameworks provide support on how CE requirements may be implemented. To address these issues, this article presents a new framework, BECE (backcasting and eco-design for the circular economy), to ensure that businesses can implement CE requirements more readily. BECE empowers organizations to tackle the CE holistically by embedding the concept into corporate decision making and by bringing operational and systems thinking together, thus increasing the likelihood of successful implementation. The potential of the BECE framework was tested through a pilot workshop focusing on the development of a CE business model through redesign of products and supply chains. Using vacuum cleaners as an illustrative case study, several product design and supply-chain alternatives were identified, including the development of scenarios and action plans for their implementation at the business level. Although the case study focuses on a particular product, the BECE framework is generic and applicable across different products and business sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potable residential water efficiency and reuse technologies have seen increasing adoption in recent years and have been estimated to reduce demands by up to 50%. In this work, we used an engineering economic model to estimate the technically feasible levelized cost of water provided by seven above-code water efficiency (i.e., beyond that required by building code) and reuse technologies within the Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA) in central Texas. Unlike other demand-side studies of residential water use, we model uncertainty and variation in technology adoption cost and performance; include reuse technologies; and differentiate between new construction and retrofits. We developed a conservation supply curve to compare the levelized cost of efficiency and reuse technologies with conventional supply-side water management strategies. We estimate that efficiency and reuse in the residential sector can meet 85% of 50-year projected needs (the difference between projected demand and estimated supplies) for the LCRA service area. We also estimate lower levelized costs for immediate retrofits of most technologies, promoting incentives for early technology adoption. However, efficiency and reuse technology performance demonstrates considerable uncertainty and variability. The fraction of demands met by demand-side strategies range from around 60% to 100%. Occupancy drives much of the variability because it significantly affects demand. These results promote designing incentives for adoption of water efficiency and reuse technologies based upon use. We find that water-efficient showerheads and bathroom faucet aerators perform well over a variety of assumptions, indicating that these technologies should be a priority for municipalities seeking water demand reductions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modularly upgradable product designs have been advocated to offer environmental and economic advantages; however, they are not commonly used in the consumer electronics industry. In this article, we investigate the economic and environmental benefits and challenges of modular upgradability for consumer electronics. From an economic point of view, we posit that the limited adoption of modular upgradability in consumer electronics is owing to various demand-, technology-, and competition-related issues. From an environmental point of view, we posit that modularly upgradable product designs may not necessarily lead to superior environmental outcomes. To reach meaningful conclusions regarding the environmental benefits of modular upgradability, one needs to understand how product architecture affects demand, production, and consumption patterns, which arise from endogenous consumer and manufacturer choices. It is also important to take into account that modular upgradability may have potentially differentiated effects in the production, consumption, and postuse phases of the lifecycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'criticality' of the various elements used in modern technologies is a topic of increasing interest, with groups from governments, consultancies, and academic institutions developing a variety of methodologies and using them to make assessments. Other groups from similar organizations are studying the methodologies that generate these assessments. Here, we analyze the different types of studies, review issues of methodology, and comment on features of nine different studies published between 2008 and mid-2014. From these studies, we derive lists of problematic, debatable, and desirable aspects of criticality studies. We emphasize that the criticality of an element can vary depending on the target organization and that, because criticality is a dynamic state, it must be periodically re-evaluated. There is substantial value to be derived if a more uniform methodology could be developed. We discuss how a harmonized methodological framework might be achieved and what its benefits could be. Putting into place such a structure for collaborative and publicly available criticality determinations would be very likely to better serve the present and future needs of corporations and governments than is the case at present, where different methodologies generate different results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes and discusses the environmental and natural resource impacts, benefits, and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential associated with a long-term transition to more energy-efficient pyrometallurgical smelting technologies for the production of refined copper. Using generic data from the KGHM Polska Miedź S.A, Glogow I and II smelting facilities in Poland, this study employs life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare the environmental impacts of shaft and flash furnace-based smelting technologies. Additionally, this analysis accounts for likely technological changes in the more energy-efficient flash furnace smelting technologies and electricity generation from 2030 to 2050 to forecast the long-term impacts of copper production. Life cycle impact assessment results for copper production are characterized using the ReCiPe 2008 midpoint method. LCA results show that, for most impact categories, the flash-based technology can achieve significantly lower environmental impacts than a shaft furnace (i.e., to produce 1 ton of copper in 2010 generates, on average, a 24% lower overall impact). For climate change, transitioning from shaft furnace-based copper production to more efficient flash furnace technology leads to decreasing GHG emissions of 29% in 2010, 50% in 2030, and 56% in 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a general framework for macroenvironmental assessment, combining life cycle assessment (LCA) with the IPAT equation, and explores its combination with decomposition analysis to assess the multidimensional contribution of technological innovation to environmental pressures. This approach is illustrated with a case study in which carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) air emissions from diesel passenger cars in Europe during the period 1990-2005 are first decomposed using index decomposition analysis into technology, consumption activity, and population growth effects. By a second decomposition, the contribution of a specific innovation (diesel engine) is calculated on the basis of the technology and consumption activity effects, through a technological comparison with a relevant alternative and the calculation of the rebound effect, respectively. The empirical analysis for diesel passenger cars highlights the discrepancies between the micro (LCA) and macro (IPAT-LCA) analytical approaches. Thus, whereas diesel engines present a relatively less-pollutant environmental product profile than their gasoline counterparts, total CO2 and NOx emissions would have increased partly as a consequence of their introduction, mainly driven by the increase in travel demand caused by the induced direct price rebound effect from fuel savings and fuel price differences. The counterintuitive result shows the need for such an analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A striking increase of the depth of giant petroleum discoveries in the past 15 years coincides with a shift to discoveries in subsalt plays that require more challenging exploration and drilling. Technological advances have facilitated these changes, but technological advances alone could not have induced these changes in petroleum exploration on a planet in which shallow and less challenging targets remained in abundance like that of previous decades. Instead, the trends toward greater discovery depths and more challenging plays suggest that most of the conventional petroleum accumulations of the kind that fueled the global economic system of the 1900s have already been found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary This article applies principles of industrial ecology to small- and medium-sized biodiesel production facilities. A large potential for gains in efficiency and profit are realized through technology retrofits and the novel application and reuse of process materials. Our basic criteria for sustainability of farm-scale biodiesel production systems are measured by the following questions: Are all of the resources, mass, and energy flows in the system rational and harmonized? Is the feedstock produced without adverse effects on natural resources or the food chain? We answer these questions by presenting and applying the latest chemical engineering and technology research to support the harmonized and rationalized use of resources and energy within the system boundaries of a farm economy. The feedstock must include refuse and secondary oil sources with low impact on the food chain. Emissions must be reduced to a minimum for a smaller carbon footprint and positive emissions balance from seed to exhaust. Discharges should be avoided; wastes must be turned into primary and intermediary products or energy resources. Proper techniques and routines should serve environmental and human health and safety targets. Reuse of existing assets is considered for improving unit capacity and efficiency, thus lowering costs of conversion. Significant benefits in profitability and production capacity, combined with improved environmental performance, are the main outcomes of the recommended restructuring of production at farm-scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary The most commonly cited definition of industrial symbiosis (IS), by Chertow (2000), has served well to foster discussion and research for more than a decade. The definition reflected the state of research and practice at the time; as both have advanced, some terms have been interpreted in substantially different ways. In this article we analyze those generally used terms for their connection to the ecological metaphor that is the root of industrial ecology, and their varied interpretations in IS research and practice over time. We then propose an updated definition intended to communicate the essence of IS as a tool for innovative green growth: IS engages diverse organizations in a network to foster eco-innovation and long-term culture change. Creating and sharing knowledge through the network yields mutually profitable transactions for novel sourcing of required inputs and value-added destinations for non-product outputs, as well as improved business and technical processes. We posit that, although geographic proximity is often associated with IS, it is neither necessary nor sufficient-nor is a singular focus on physical resource exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines factors behind the massive decrease in iron ore grades. The decrease is attributed to technical innovation that has allowed the conversion of large supplies of low-grade ores into invaluable deposits. The benefits of continuing to operate existing mines compared to starting a new mine include the ability to avoid uncertainties associated with operating a new mine.

Von Hippel and colleagues have highlighted the crucial role of users in innovation in different industries and types of products. They describe the innovation process in terms of the distinct domains of knowledge that producers and users possess. Producers have knowledge about technical solutions and users about their needs, the context of use, and their own capabilities as users. Both sets of knowledge are characterized by “stickiness”: They move relatively freely within their own domain but are difficult to transfer outside of it. In the case of radical innovations for sustainable consumption, the problem of “sticky information” is compounded. Both producers and consumers need to reach out of their conventional competencies and search for new solutions. “Societal actors,” such as government bodies or environmental experts, can show the way to such solutions, but this new knowledge needs to be integrated with the “sticky” knowledge about everyday practices in production and consumption. In the present article we attempt to conceptualize the role and interaction of user and producer knowledge with the knowledge of environmental experts in housing energy innovations. We do so by applying the user−producer interaction framework to a case study on the introduction of low-energy housing concepts in Finland. On the basis of this analysis, we draw conclusions on the potential and limitations of today's practices in the field. For example, we suggest that user involvement can help to enhance the acceptance of low-energy solutions but that the methods for involving users need to be adapted to the particular circumstances in each industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the development of material consumption in three transition economies during the years 1990–2002. We compare the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland and benchmark their material consumption against average values for the 15 member states of the European Union (formation as of 1995) representing a typical market economy. The article compares consumption of materials in these countries and relates them to relevant socioeconomic variables, using the IPAT equation as a starting point. The article tries to answer whether there has been a convergence in per capita material consumption in these transition economies, in order to identify commonalities associated with the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy in terms of the development of material consumption. We investigate the relation between material consumption, population development, economic growth, and technological change during the transition. We show that the three transition economies, in general, experienced a convergence in per capita material consumption, including a common decrease in the consumption of biomass. Two out of three countries further recorded a decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels and an increase in the consumption of minerals. We found a general trend of increasing dependence on foreign resources during the transition. On the basis of the IPAT analysis, we found that the development of material consumption was mostly driven by the growth in consumption and by technological change. Although gross domestic product (GDP) growth contributed to a growth in material consumption, the influence of technology supported a reverse effect. In some of the countries, however, the factors decreasing material consumption (i.e., shifts to services and technological change) were not able to outweigh those factors causing material consumption to grow (i.e., increase in GDP). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A case study of the chlor-alkali industry in Western Europe and Japan is presented examining the effects of environmental regulation on technological change. In Western Europe, standards were set for mercury emissions from chlor-alkali plants, which were gradually tightened subsequently. Research and development (R&D) efforts were directed to end-of-pipe technologies as well as process improvements for reducing mercury emissions, rather than to clean technologies, which eliminate mercury from within the production process. With a significant reduction in mercury emissions with end-of-pipe technologies, new plants continued to be built that relied on the mercury process. As long as these relatively new plants could be utilized, technological transition to the clean ion-exchange membrane process remained slow. The success in reducing mercury emissions with end-of-pipe technologies, in effect, helped to prolong the lifetime of the existing mercury process. In Japan, the government introduced policies to phase out the existing mercury process. The strict approach encouraged innovative companies to make R&D efforts on clean technologies, instead of end-of-pipe technologies for pollution abatement. Applied in a hasty and inflexible way, however, the stringent regulation initially induced most of the chloralkali producers to choose the diaphragm process, which later turned out to be inappropriate. After the regulatory schedule was modified to allow more time for process conversion, the remaining mercury-based plants were converted directly to the most efficient ion-exchange membrane process. The technological transition, however, was costly, as most of the diaphragm-based plants introduced following the regulatory mandate were operated only for a short period of time, with the large investment wasted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the changing food production and consumption system of yogurt in the United Kingdom, focusing on the environmental impact of the yogurt processing stage from a technological perspective. Based on interviews with key industry stakeholders, we describe the evolution of the yogurt industry since the 1950s, characterized by a shift toward industrialized mass production and increased product diversity. We explain how new technologies, sociopolitical trends, and industrial strategies have shaped the evolution of the industry over this period. Moreover, we argue that the environmental impact of the current yogurt production and consumption system has been determined to a large extent by technological change. The article explores the future of the yogurt production and consumption system, considering the environmental implications of increased production of more differentiated yogurt products and how technological change may mitigate some of those impacts. The analysis reveals that to appreciate the environmental impact of the yogurt industry, policy makers should not focus simply on the primary stage of production but on all stages of the yogurt production and consumption system. Minimizing waste and improving resource efficiency at the yogurt processing stage are found to be particularly important. Transformation to an alternative yogurt production and consumption system with substantially lower environmental impacts requires significant commitment to change across the industry and the wider sociotechnical landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we discuss the interplay between extended producer responsibility (EPR) and technological change and innovation (TCI) in Norway. We ask whether Norwegian EPR policy has an effect on TCI and, if so, whether it makes any difference how the EPR policies are designed. By carrying out a comparative study between the plastic packaging (PP) sector and electrical and electronic (EE) sector in Norway, we conclude that there is a correlation between Norwegian EPR policy and TCI, but the causality is rather weak. EPR has an effect on downstream activities through increased recycling and indirectly through institutional innovation and learning. It does not, however, make a significant difference how the policies are designed, because they are considered similar by a majority of actors contributing financially to the EPR schemes. As for technological change and innovation upstream, the role of Norwegian EPR policies in the observed trends is not significant. Other factors such as the EPR-based Restriction on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive promulgated by the European Union (EE sector) and the need for competitiveness (PP sector) seem far more important. In order to make collective EPR policies more powerful in inducing technological change and innovation, decision-makers should consider more specific measures that directly address the core businesses of the producers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Australian stocks and flows framework (ASFF) is a tool for establishing a coherent historical picture of the Australian physical economy and for testing long-term future scenarios (up to 2050 or even 2100). These scenarios can be used to investigate the long-term physical consequences of current and future choices affecting the physical dimensions of sustainability. In this article we describe the methodology for and construction of a key component of ASFF: a dynamic physical input-output model of material flows in the basic industries. The materials model in ASFF describes physical flows and their transformation by industrial processes. The model's structure permits scenario analysis of long-term technological change by permitting time-varying input-output coefficients and vintage models of capital stocks. As a consequence, the model contains a large number of parameters, which can be left at default settings or adjusted as the modeler sees fit, in order to simulate the widest possible range of physically realizable scenarios. The materials model is built using a methodology that integrates bottom-up process analysis with topdown statistics on material and energy flows. We present some examples showing how the materials model has been implemented to model Australian heavy industries. Several possibilities for further developing the materials model are also described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reduction of specific energy consumption by 1% to 2% per year is typically what is considered feasible for end-use energy applications. This article tries to answer the question of whether much higher rates, for example 5% and more, are feasible for new equipment, installations, and buildings. After examining some end-use functions in industry, buildings, and the transport sector, it is concluded that for the foreseeable future—that is, not more than 10 to 20 years into the future—such high rates of reduction of specific energy consumption are indeed possible. For the longer term, no definitive proof is available, but there are also no indications that such high rates could not be maintained. The effect of the reduction of specific energy consumption on total energy use depends on the growth of energy-using activities and on the replacement rates of capital stock. Taking these into account, it is estimated that for industrialized countries a reduction of absolute total energy use by 50% in 50 years compared with the current levels is possible. Such a reduction requires a huge effort in innovation; however, the possibilities for stimulating innovation seem not to be exhausted yet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]