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An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses articles in the issue on topics including relationship-based leadership; leadership literature; and organizational design.

Paradoxical leadership behaviour (PLB) represents an emerging leadership construct that can help leaders deal with conflicting demands. In this paper, we report three studies that add to this nascent literature theoretically, methodologically, and empirically. In Study 1, we validate an effective short‐form measure of global PLB using three different samples. In Studies 2 and 3, we draw on the job demands–resources model to propose that paradoxical leaders promote followers' work engagement by simultaneously fostering follower goal clarity and work autonomy. The results of survey data from Studies 2 and 3 largely confirm our model. Specifically, our findings show that PLB is positively associated with follower goal clarity and work autonomy, and that PLB exerts an indirect effect on work engagement via these variables. Moreover, our results support a hypothesized interaction effect of goal clarity and work autonomy to predict followers' work engagement, as well as a conditional indirect effect of PLB on work engagement via the interactive effect. We discuss the practical implications for leaders and organizations. Practitioner points: To effectively engage followers in their work, leaders should create work environments in which followers know exactly what to do (i.e., have high goal clarity), but at the same time can determine on their own how to do their work (i.e., have high work autonomy)To foster both goal clarity and work autonomy, leaders should combine communal (e.g., other‐centred, flexibility‐providing) and agentic aspects of leadership (e.g., maintaining decision control and enforcing performance standards).HR departments should design leadership trainings that help leaders to combine seemingly opposing, yet ultimately synergistic behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we conceptualize and integrate a measure of political knowledge into the broader literatures on political behaviour, proactivity, and followership. Political knowledge refers to an individual's perceived understanding of the relationships, demands, resources, and preferences of an influential target, such as their leader. We examine political knowledge in the follower–leader context with two studies of employees (Ns = 301 & 492) and two studies of follower–leader pairs (Ns = 187 & 130 dyads). Findings generally support the convergent and discriminant validity of our political knowledge measure. In addition, we find consistent evidence for the mediating role of political knowledge of one's leader in the relationship between follower political skill and political will with self‐reported follower proactive behaviours. Taken together, the results contribute to the political influence framework and offer insight into the importance of 'knowing your leader' in enabling followers to engage in politically risky proactivity. Practitioner points: Political knowledge describes an individual's understanding of specific influential others' relationships, demands, resources, and preferences.Followers with political knowledge are more likely to take charge and enact change, which we think is because this knowledge makes enacting change seem less risky.Leaders seeking to improve their followers' political knowledge should focus on building high‐quality relationships with followers; these relationships are positively associated with political knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we introduce a novel construct, leader–member exchange (LMX) importance, which we position as a meta‐perception indicating whether followers view their LMX relationship as personally important or valuable to them. Based on social exchange theory, we examine the extent to which the obligation followers feel towards their leader depends jointly on the quality and the importance of the LMX relationship. We examine how LMX importance influences the process through which LMX quality affects employees' level of organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) by focusing on felt obligation (a measure of followers' reciprocity obligation in the social exchange process) as a mediating variable. Across two studies, we found that high levels of both LMX quality and LMX importance interacted to engender a greater feeling of obligation in followers to repay the perceived favourable exchanges with their leader. Felt obligation predicted leader‐rated OCB, demonstrating support for our hypothesized moderated mediation model. However, psychological empowerment, when included alongside felt obligation (in Study 2), did not mediate the LMX‐OCB relationship. Overall, our findings extend the focus of LMX theory beyond the confines of LMX quality to incorporate the importance of the LMX relationship. Practitioner points: Leaders should be aware that followers vary in the extent to which they perceive the leader–follower relationship to be personally important. As such, they may decide to invest heavily in helping followers understand that the relationship is instrumental for their success at work.Leaders should invest not only in trying to build positive relationships, but also in establishing the importance of these relationships. Doing so will maximize the benefits of developing a high‐quality relationship.Followers appear to be more willing to reciprocate when they perceive a high‐quality relationship with the leader and one when they perceive the relationship to be important. Thus, managers should be aware that the norm of reciprocity may vary depending on how important followers perceive the relationship to be and leaders may need to find other ways to motivate employees who do not see the relationship as important.When followers do not see the leader–follower relationship as important, managers should avoid trying to engage in reciprocity contingent influence tactics and/or try to change followers' perceptions of the importance of the relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although we are aware of some positive cases of leadership and management emerging on the African continent, very little empirical or theoretical work has addressed leadership and management in Africa. This raises a challenge for African nations in that ultimately a country's economic performance is contingent on the effectiveness of its leadership and management practices that serve to unlock the potential of its workforce to effectively implement the strategic goals of organizations. Against the backdrop of an increasingly knowledge-dependent global marketplace, the centrality of leadership and effective management systems as drivers of individual and organization performance has never been more critical. This special section brings together a compendium of papers that advances the science of leadership and management within the African context. Our principle goal was to examine what is unique, what generalizes, and what does not generalize from the West and East to Africa, as well as within different regions of Africa and then offer ideas to guide future research and practice. The papers in this section provide a broad and indeed innovative approach to studying leadership and management in Africa by including historical, philosophical, economic, and socio-political perspectives, as part of the analyses of leadership and management in the African context. Our editorial provides an integration of this work and a launching point for some audacious goals for future leadership and management science and practice in Africa and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In today's fast-paced dynamic work environment, organizations are recognizing the important role played by leadership in attaining and sustaining individual, unit, and organizational effectiveness. This paper briefly reviews extant literature and builds a logical framework depicting the interrelationships between leadership and the contextual factors of societal culture and patrimonial behaviours in sub-Saharan Africa. The article concludes by outlining a future research agenda for leadership in sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research investigating proactive behaviour at work has generally focused on the ways in which proactive behaviour enables individuals and organizations to be more effective. Although it has been noted that some proactive behaviours may be undesirable or have potentially negative consequences, researchers have not examined the 'dark side' of proactive behaviour in any systematic way. In this conceptual paper, we explore the potentially negative individual and organizational implications of expecting employees to behave proactively. Specifically, at the individual level, we argue that expecting proactive behaviour in organizations may contribute to stress among employees and friction between proactive and less proactive employees. At the organizational level, we suggest that relying on proactive behaviour may cause harm to an organization by undermining its ability to socialize employees and foster its organizational culture, weakening its learning capability, and reducing its ability to develop future leaders. We conclude by discussing additional avenues for studies examining the potential costs of proactive behaviour for both individuals and organizations alike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a two-pronged qualitative research study that used leaders' life stories and the case research method to understand the leadership of change in 14 South African organizations. We describe how leaders led the changes required to balance the imperatives emanating from South Africa's socio-political changes and return the country to the international business arena, as well as the challenges created by years of inequality and neglect of the socio-economic development of the majority of its population. We found that the leaders' life stories played a significant role in how they perceived and responded to the change situation. Four themes summarizing the actions of the leaders - namely, their efforts to embrace change, to provide hope, to connect change to African values and culture, and to champion diversity - are described. The results of the study suggest that leaders' life stories can be an important source of information about how they perceive, interpret, and respond to change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to further knowledge of proactive employee behaviour by exploring whether pro-organizational, prosocial, and pro-self focused proactive behaviour can be measured in an empirically distinct manner, and whether these types of proactive behaviour show differential relationships with other variables. Results of two multi- source studies using self-rated and peer-rated measures empirically support the distinctiveness of the different foci of proactive behaviour. Study I (N = 117 dyads) shows that the different foci of proactive behaviour are differentially related to different foci of affective commitment. Study 2 (N = 126 dyads) builds on these findings and shows that different foci of proactive behaviour have differential relationships with transformational leadership, goal orientations, and individual task performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research on the relationship between empowering leadership and employee creativity has found mixed results, calling for more research to explore alternative mechanism and boundary conditions in this relationship. In this research, drawing on regulatory focus theory and social role theory, we propose that empowering leadership has a positive relationship with employee creativity through employee promotion focus and that this relationship is stronger for male (vs. female) leaders and for female (vs. male) employees. We conducted a multi‐source survey study and a vignette experiment to test our theoretical model. Results across these two studies supported our hypotheses. Our findings offer implications for research and practice regarding empowering leadership and creativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the COVID‐19 pandemic, teachers in the United States, an already at‐risk occupation group, experienced new work‐related stressors, safety concerns, and work‐life challenges, magnifying on‐going retention concerns. Integrating the crisis management literature with the unfolding model of turnover, we theorize that leader actions trigger initial employee responses but also set the stage for on‐going crisis response that influence changes in teachers' turnover intentions. We apply latent growth curve modelling to test our hypotheses based on a sample of 617 K‐12 teachers using nine waves of data, including a baseline survey at the start of the 2020–2021 school year and eight follow‐up surveys (2‐week lags) through the Fall 2020 semester. In terms of overall adaptation, teachers on average, experienced an increase in work‐life balance and a decrease in turnover intentions over the course of the semester. Results also suggest that district and school leadership provide unique and complementary resources, but leader behaviours that shape initial crisis responses do not similarly affect employee responses during crisis, contrary to theory. Instead, teachers' adaptive crisis response trajectories were triggered by continued resource provision over the semester; increasing provision of valued resources (i.e., continued refinement of safety practices) and improvements in work‐life balance prevented turnover intentions from spiralling throughout the crisis. Crisis management theory and research should continue to incorporate temporal dynamics and identify factors that contribute to crisis response trajectories, using designs and analyses that allow for examination as crises unfold in real time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the extent to which transformational leadership behaviours enacted by team members – shared transformational leadership – relate to safety behaviours of team members, teams, and team leaders. We also consider the role of perceived organizational support in moderating the relationships between shared transformational leadership and safety behaviours. We collected data from 2,139 crew members ('team members') and 98 chief engineers ('team leaders') working on merchant shipping vessels ('teams'). Team members' perceptions of shared transformational leadership positively related to team members' safety compliance and safety participation. Shared transformational leadership became less effective in relation to team members' safety compliance under conditions of high levels of perceived organizational support. Shared transformational leadership at the team level related to higher levels of safety participation of teams. Teams' shared transformational leadership was positively related to team leaders' safety participation, but only under low levels of perceived organizational support. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the important role of shared transformational leadership in relation to safety behaviours and suggest that the effectiveness of shared transformational leadership might vary depending on perceived organizational support. Practitioner points: Transformational leadership behaviours exercised by team members – shared transformational leadership – are associated with higher levels of mandated and discretionary safety behaviours of team members.Teams that have higher levels of shared transformational leadership demonstrate higher levels of team‐level discretionary safety behaviours.Shared transformational leadership is more strongly associated with employees' mandated safety behaviours under low levels of perceived organizational support.When leaders perceive low levels of organizational support, their teams' shared transformational leadership becomes a more important correlate of leaders' discretionary safety behaviours.In addition to traditional leadership training that involves formal leaders only, organizations should consider implementing activities that foster shared leadership behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self‐leadership has been the subject of dozens of empirical investigations over the past several decades and has emerged as a pivotal construct in the self‐influence literature. Despite the interest in the construct, the myriad of disparate variables studied and the absence of a quantitative systematic review summarizing findings have combined to limit our ability to cohesively interpret and draw meaningful conclusions from this large literature. To address this, we carried out a meta‐analysis of the nomological network of self‐leadership, encompassing effect sizes from 101 studies and 111 independent samples. Drawing on social cognitive theory to frame our research questions and hypotheses, we evaluate global self‐leadership and its constituent strategies (i.e., behaviour‐focused, constructive thought, natural rewards) as predictors of job performance, self‐efficacy, and job attitudes. In addition to evaluating zero‐order correlations, we use regression and relative‐weight analyses to evaluate the three strategies' effects on the various outcomes simultaneously, delineating their relative contributions. Our meta‐analysis examines the Five‐Factor Model of personality traits as antecedents. We also observed evidence suggesting that self‐leadership's relationships were moderated by national power distance. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Practitioner points: Self‐leadership is meaningfully associated with conscientiousness, openness, extraversion, and transformational leadership.Fostering employee self‐leadership may promote productive cognition, attitudes, and behaviors.Self‐leadership training programs can target specific strategies for training based on the desired outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to test the impact of a self‐leadership intervention on the work engagement, performance, and health of health care workers. By integrating self‐determination theory and self‐leadership theory, we propose that when employees are trained how they can autonomously influence own cognitions and behaviour, this will impact their work engagement, perceived performance, and general health. To test the hypotheses, a longitudinal field experiment with three measurement waves was conducted (pre‐intervention, immediately after the intervention, and 2 months after the intervention). Health care professionals (n = 195) from five different organizations participated on voluntary basis and were randomly assigned to the intervention or control group. Results show that a self‐leadership training positively impacts work engagement and performance of health care workers. Furthermore, the improved work engagement also mediates the effects of the training on health and performance 2 months later. No direct effect was found on general health. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Practitioners points: The self‐leadership intervention facilitates healthcare workers to develop self‐determination and autonomous motivation, which will positively impact their work engagement, health, and performanceParticipation in the self‐leadership intervention needs to be based on volition as this will contribute to the intrinsic motivation for actual self‐leadership development through training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organizational research underpinned by self‐determination theory (SDT) has grown substantially over the past decade. However, the effectiveness of interventions designed to promote support for basic psychological needs in organizations remains ill documented. We thus report the results of a qualitative systematic review and synthesis of SDT‐informed studies of interventions to cultivate autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs, and in turn, autonomous motivation in organizational contexts. Studies were included in the review if they evaluated the effect of interventions to develop autonomy‐, competence‐, or relatedness‐supportive work climates or leader behaviours. A systematic search yielded ten eligible field studies for inclusion: three randomized‐controlled trials and seven non‐randomized intervention studies (combined N = 2,337). Seven studies yielded mostly favourable effects, two yielded mixed effects, and one study showed no evidence of change post‐intervention. Substantial heterogeneity in intervention format and delivery existed across studies. Studies pointed towards possible moderators of effectiveness. Interventions were more effective at spawning change at the proximal (leader) level than at the distal (subordinate) level, though few studies tracked employees over time to comprehensively evaluate long‐term transfer. Bias assessments showed that risk of bias was moderate or high across studies. We discuss overall implications of the review and suggest several recommendations for future intervention research and practice. Practitioner points: Interventions to help leaders to support subordinates' basic psychological needs are effective in creating change in leader behaviour.Intervention effects for subordinate outcomes are smaller and may take time to materialize.Interventions tend to be more effective if they are aligned with organizational strategic needs, proactively consider unique work contexts, are endorsed by senior levels of management, and give preference to pedagogy that aligns with basic needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Team learning orientation magnitude and strength are important to sustain group effectiveness and adaptability, but scant research has investigated them simultaneously. We examine how transformational leadership, behavioural integration, and the degree of team personality heterogeneity in extraversion and agreeableness contribute to the magnitude and strength of team learning orientation. In study 1, using a time‐lagged survey sample of 50 work teams, we found that transformational leadership was associated with two team learning orientation aspects through the mediation of behavioural integration. In study 2, in a survey sample of 72 teams, we replicated these findings and further demonstrated that the relationship between transformational leadership and behavioural integration is enhanced when there is greater personality homogeneity in agreeableness. Our findings suggest that transformational leadership is able to converge a high and strong learning orientation in work teams through prompting behavioural integration among members, yet the influence of transformational leadership is contingent on the degree of team personality heterogeneity. Our research conclusions highlight important insights for team leaders about how to create a strong team climate of learning in order to sustain the long‐term success of their work teams. Practitioner points: Transformational leadership is shown to be associated with high levels of team learning orientation magnitude and strength. Thus, to encourage team learning, adopting transformational leadership training is an effective strategy.To converge team learning orientation (i.e., promoting strength), it is important for transformational leaders to encourage information exchange, collaboration, and joint decision‐making (i.e., behavioural integration) among team members.The influence of transformational leadership can be amplified when the team is homogenous on members' personality. As a result, providing leaders with knowledge of the 'deep‐level' composition of team members could help them better foster team behavioural and learning dynamics [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a multisource, lagged design field study of 66 consulting teams, we investigated the role of leader mood in unlocking the performance potential of functionally diverse teams. In line with our hypotheses, we found that, given high levels of leader positive mood, functional diversity was positively related to collective team identification. In contrast, given high levels of leader negative mood, functional diversity was positively associated with information elaboration in teams. Furthermore, results showed that functional diversity was most strongly related to team performance when both leader positive mood and leader negative mood were high. This study highlights the value of examining seemingly contradictory leadership aspects in the effort to gain a fuller understanding of how to foster performance in diverse teams. Practitioner points: To effectively lead diverse teams, leaders need to navigate between the need to promote unique ideas (i.e., information elaboration) and the simultaneous need to pull together diverse members towards a common identity.Leader mood addresses both of these needs. When the team leader exhibited a positive mood, team functional diversity was positively related to members' identification with the team. By contrast, when the team leader displayed a negative mood, team functional diversity was positively related to information elaboration.Over a 12‐day period, diverse teams performed best when the leader showed both positive and negative mood.Leaders of diverse teams are required to be sensitive to the affective tone of their team and aware of how their emotional displays influence team members' moods and behaviours as well as team processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on contradictory arguments about whether the frequency of the interactions between team managers and the teams they manage is positive or negative for teams, we hypothesize a curvilinear relationship. Focusing on positive team mood and based on the leadership literature and the conservation of resources theory, we hypothesize an inverted‐U‐shaped relationship. In addition, adding arguments from the substitutes for leadership theory, we propose that this curvilinear relationship is moderated by team potency and tenure. Hypotheses were tested using panel data collected in a sample of 55 work teams by means of hierarchical non‐lineal regression. Results show that, as expected, the relationship between the frequency of the interactions and positive team mood was curvilinear and moderated by team potency and team tenure. As expected, the curve became increasingly convex downward as team tenure increased. However, for team potency, the results were contrary to what was expected. The results have important implications for planning the frequency of managers' interactions with their teams, and they indicate the importance of considering team tenure and potency as contextual moderators. Practitioner points: Our study shows that the frequency with which team managers interact with team members to discuss work, organizational, and team functioning issues is a relevant predictor of positive team mood.More frequent interactions do not always foster positive team mood. Average interaction levels, as perceived by team members, are more effective than low or high levels.Managers should adapt the frequency of the interactions to the characteristics of the teams managed, particularly their tenure and potency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research has shown that many text‐based situational judgment test (SJT) items can be solved even when the situational descriptions in the item stems are not presented to test takers. This finding challenges the traditional view of SJTs as low‐fidelity simulations that rely on 'situational' (context‐dependent) judgment. However, media richness theory and construal level theory suggest that situation descriptions presented in a richer and more concrete format (video format) will reduce uncertainty about inherent requirements and facilitate the perception that the situation is taking place in the here and now. Therefore, we hypothesized that situational judgment would be more important in video situation descriptions than in text situation descriptions. We adapted a leadership SJT to realize a 3 (situation description in the item stem: video vs. text vs. none) × 2 (response format: video response options vs. text response options) between‐subjects design (N = 279). Participants were randomly assigned to one of the six conditions. The removal of video‐based situation descriptions in item stems led to an equivalent decrease in SJT scores as the removal of text‐based situation descriptions in item stems (video‐based version: Cohen's d = 0.535 vs. text‐based version: Cohen's d = 0.531). SJT scores were also contingent on the presentation format of both situation descriptions and response options: The highest scores were observed when situation descriptions and response options were presented in the same format. Implications for SJT theory and research are discussed. Practitioner points: The presentation format did not moderate the effect of omitting situation descriptions in SJTs – that is, the context dependency of SJT performance did not increase when the SJT was administered in a video‐based rather than a text‐based format.The elimination of situation descriptions in item stems had a medium effect on overall test scores: SJT scores were significant lower without situation descriptions in comparison to SJT scores with situation descriptions (video‐based version: Cohen's d = 0.535 vs. text‐based version: Cohen's d = 0.531).It is important to match the stimulus and response formats in SJTs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current study, we strategically link the work–family literature to employee creativity, a construct seen as a linchpin for organizational success, through family‐supportive supervision based on the concept of reciprocity of interdependent exchanges within social exchange theory. In Study 1 (N = 188), based on data with a one‐month lag between two assessments, we demonstrate that family‐supportive supervision is an explanatory leadership behaviour that connects broader leadership styles (i.e., leader–member exchange) to employee creativity. In Study 2, we further unpack the theoretical exchange processes at work to better address the leadership–creativity black box. With a sample of 251 participants, surveyed at two time points, we leverage a motivational process model and demonstrate that meaningfulness and intrinsic motivation mediate the relationship between family‐supportive supervision and creativity. These findings provide insight into the motivational mechanisms involved in the social exchange process and implications for inciting employee creativity through family‐supportive supervision. Practitioner points: We demonstrate that family‐supportive supervision is an important driver of constructs of strategic importance (e.g., motivation, creativity) to many organizations.We provide practitioners with a focused opportunity for intervention to promote creativity given that leaders can be trained to engage in family‐supportive behaviours.We provide evidence that should encourage practitioners to start thinking about processes related to sustaining creativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We draw on Gouldner's (1960, Am. Sociol. Rev., 25, 161) norm of reciprocity to accomplish three goals: (1) theoretically depict the employee voice process as an exchange relationship that is maintained when both parties provide benefits 'in kind' to each other; (2) introduce the notion of voice resilience, defined as subsequent engagement in voice despite adversity in the process (i.e., voice non‐endorsement); and (3) demonstrate the importance of voice safety as a key mechanism that facilitates voice resilience. When employees speak up to their leaders with suggestions for change, this behaviour is positively intended and represents a contribution to the leader and to the mutual relationship because voice is a risky behaviour. When leaders do not implement employee suggestions (non‐endorsement of voice) but reciprocate by providing adequate explanations for non‐endorsement, this should foster employee perceptions of voice safety and make it more likely that employees will speak up with suggestions in the future (subsequent voice). In sum, this mutual exchange of benefits, voice from the employee and adequate explanations for non‐endorsement from the leader, should foster voice resilience. Results across two studies (field and laboratory) demonstrate that sensitivity of explanations for non‐endorsement (not specificity) predicts follower's voice safety and subsequent voice. We discuss the theoretical implications of the more personal nature of sensitive explanations compared to the more descriptive and factual nature of specific explanations and consider the practical benefits of encouraging leaders and organizations to view the voice process as a mutual exchange relationship. Practitioner points: Organizations can offer training and development on how to maintain voice exchange relationships even when leaders do not endorse employee suggestions.Our work demonstrates that it is critically important for leaders to exhibit sensitivity in their non‐endorsement responses to employee suggestions.If explanations in the voice process are delivered in a sensitive manner, our research shows that voice resilience can be achieved by fostering voice safety such that employees are significantly more likely to engage in subsequent voice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leader–member exchange (LMX) has long been considered a relationship‐based, dyadic model of leader–follower interactions. Recent reviews of this literature have, however, documented a paucity of research focusing on relationship‐based antecedents and dyadic‐level outcomes. In this study, we draw upon the relationship investment model to consider the effects of shared perceptions (or lack thereof) of relationship satisfaction and investment in the LMX relationship, from both the leader and follower's perspectives in predicting divergent perceptions of LMX (i.e., dyadic LMX disagreement). Using multi‐source data obtained from managers and their subordinates working at 31 organizations, we test hypotheses using a specific form of multivariate multilevel regression (i.e., a one‐with‐many model). Our findings suggest that dyadic LMX disagreement is associated with differences in how leaders and followers weight the importance of satisfaction and investments in their relationship. Also, if leaders are overinvested or over‐satisfied, we observe unique forms of disagreement in LMX ratings. Based on these results, we highlight implications for extending theory and research in LMX as well as work relationships. Practitioner points: Disagreements among leaders and subordinates regarding the quality of their relationship (i.e., not seeing eye to eye) can weaken the impact of subordinates' efforts and reduce their engagement.Leaders and subordinates can more easily see eye to eye about their relationships by acknowledging the difference in importance they place on the previous investment they have made in the other person and discussing what each member of the pair is seeking to obtain from their relationship.It is more difficult for leaders and subordinates to see eye to eye about their relationships when leaders have invested more or are more satisfied than their subordinates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on Foa and Foa's (1974) resource theory, this study explores why, how, and when followers' proactive engagement in taking charge behaviours can drive leader–member exchange (LMX) relationships. Through a three‐wave multi‐rater field survey among 230 leader–follower dyads in China, we found that follower taking charge is positively related to LMX after accounting for the effect of in‐role performance. Our results suggest leader perceived service resources (i.e., the efforts and actions carried out by the focal follower that make the leader's work more effective) as the underlying mechanism of this relationship. Further, our findings demonstrate that achievement‐goal‐striving leaders are more likely to recognize the service value of taking charge followers and subsequently develop high‐quality LMX relationships with them. This study moves LMX theory forward by investigating follower‐driven LMX development. It also contributes to the emerging work on followership by 'reversing the lens' between leadership practice (in terms of LMX) and follower behaviour (in terms of taking charge). Practitioner points: Leaders should be aware of the valuable service resources associated with followers' taking charge attempts.Followers who work under achievement‐goal‐striving leaders should be more proactive in building high‐quality relationships with their bosses by taking charge at work.To benefit from high‐quality LMX relationships, organizations should train leaders to appreciate followers' taking charge endeavours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although differentiated relationships among leaders and their followers are fundamental to leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, research provides limited knowledge about whether employees' responses to individual perceptions of LMX differentiation are uniform. In a field study, we examined whether individual‐level psychological empowerment buffers the negative relationship between perceived LMX differentiation and job satisfaction and found that the negative relationship is strongest under low employee psychological empowerment conditions, as compared to high psychological empowerment. Furthermore, in a multi‐wave field study and an experiment, we extended these initial findings by investigating employees' perceptions of supervisory fairness as a mediator of this moderated relationship. We found that the indirect effect between perceived LMX differentiation and job satisfaction, through supervisory fairness perceptions, is strongest under low employee psychological empowerment, as compared to high psychological empowerment. Collectively, our findings showcase the importance of psychological empowerment as a tool for employees to use to counteract the negative effect of perceived differentiated contexts. Practitioner points: When employees perceive that their managers have differentiated relationships across workgroup employees, employees tend to be less satisfied in their jobs, and this negative relationship is explained through employees' perceptions of supervisory fairness.Employees with low psychological empowerment levels (e.g., employees who feel less in control of their work) report lower levels of job satisfaction when they perceive that their managers differentiate among employees.However, employees with high levels of psychological empowerment are more resilient in contexts where managers are perceived to differentiate across workgroup employees.The findings reinforce the necessity for managers and organizations to implement and promote empowerment initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We integrate followership theory and trust theory to understand the role of employees' proactivity on their leaders' attitudes, cognitions, and behaviours. We propose that (1) employees' proactive personality engenders their leaders' cognition‐ and affect‐based trust, which in turn positively influences empowering leadership; (2) the indirect effects of proactive personality on empowering leadership via cognition‐ and affect‐based trust are contingent on the level of employee task performance and organizational citizenship behaviour, respectively; and (3) the indirect effect of proactive personality on empowering leadership via affect‐ (cognition‐) based trust is stronger when the level of cognition‐ (affect‐) based trust is high rather than low. We conducted two‐wave study, with a sample of 116 supervisor–employee dyads from a large petrochemical firm in South Korea to test proposed effects. Results suggest that leaders' affect‐based trust, but not cognition‐based trust, served to mediate the effect of proactive personality on empowering leadership. Moreover, the results further support that the positive mediation of leaders' affect‐based trust on empowering leadership was present when leaders' cognition‐based trust was high, but not when it was low. Implications for future research are discussed. Practitioner points: Leaders report a greater level of trust in employees with a more proactive personality.Leaders are more likely to empower employees in whom they have higher levels of both affect‐based and cognition‐based trust; in other words, employees who they like more and believe to be more competent.To help promote empowering, organizations might consider selecting on the basis of proactive personality and fostering a culture that promotes employee proactivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a field survey of leaders and their followers to examine factors that moderate the relationship between employee proactive personality and proactive behaviour. As hypothesized, random coefficient modelling analysis showed that two situational factors – transformational leadership and a climate of innovation and flexibility – moderated the relationship between employee proactive personality and proactive behaviour. Conceptually, we draw from situational strength theory to predict the pattern of these interactions. Our findings indicated that organizations desiring proactive employee behaviour would be well advised to take one of three courses of action: select employees with proactive personality who will generally behave proactively regardless of the situation; develop transformational leaders who will motivate, inspire, and support proactive employee behaviour; or cultivate a climate of innovation and flexibility which will create a strong situation that fosters proactivity regardless of employee individual differences. Practitioner points: The modern workplace often demands that employees behave proactively, and our research shows that there are multiple strategies organizations can implement to facilitate employee proactive behaviour.In particular, our study reveals three ways for organizations to facilitate proactive employee behaviour: (1) recruit and select employees who are high in proactive personality, who will be more apt to naturally engage in proactive behaviour; (2) hire or train leaders to be transformational since transformational leaders will bring about proactive employee behaviour; or (3) create a climate that rewards innovation and flexibility as such a climate will encourage proactive employee behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With empirical research on team resilience on the rise, there is a need for an integrative conceptual model that delineates the essential elements of this concept and offers a heuristic for the integration of findings across studies. To address this need, we propose a multilevel model of team resilience that originates in the resources of individual team members and emerges as a team‐level construct through dynamic person–situation interactions that are triggered by adverse events. In so doing, we define team resilience as an emergent outcome characterized by the trajectory of a team's functioning, following adversity exposure, as one that is largely unaffected or returns to normal levels after some degree of deterioration in functioning. This conceptual model offers a departure point for future work on team resilience and reinforces the need to incorporate inputs and process mechanisms inherent within dynamic interactions among individual members of a team. Of particular, importance is the examination of these inputs, process mechanisms and emergent states, and outcomes over time, and in the context of task demands, objectives, and adverse events. Practitioner points: Team resilience as a dynamic, multilevel phenomenon requires clarity on the individual‐ and team‐level factors that foster its emergence within occupational and organizational settings.An understanding of the nature (e.g., timing, chronicity) of adverse events is key to studying and intervening to foster team resilience within occupational and organizational settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent theorizing applying the social identity approach to leadership proposes a four‐dimensional model of identity leadership that centres on leaders' management of a shared sense of 'we' and 'us'. This research validates a scale assessing this model – the Identity Leadership Inventory (ILI). We present results from an international project with data from all six continents and from more than 20 countries/regions with 5,290 participants. The ILI was translated (using back‐translation methods) into 13 different languages (available in the Appendix S1) and used along with measures of other leadership constructs (i.e., leader–member exchange [LMX], transformational leadership, and authentic leadership) as well as employee attitudes and (self‐reported) behaviours – namely identification, trust in the leader, job satisfaction, innovative work behaviour, organizational citizenship behaviour, and burnout. Results provide consistent support for the construct, discriminant, and criterion validity of the ILI across countries. We show that the four dimensions of identity leadership are distinguishable and that they relate to important work‐related attitudes and behaviours above and beyond other leadership constructs. Finally, we also validate a short form of the ILI, noting that is likely to have particular utility in applied contexts. Practitioner points: The Identity Leadership Inventory (ILI) has a consistent factor structure and high predictive value across 20 countries and can thus be used to assess a leader's ability to manage (team and organizational) identities in a range of national and cultural contexts.Identity leadership as perceived by employees is uniquely related to important indicators of leadership effectiveness including employees' relationship to their team (identification and perceived team support), well‐being (job satisfaction and reduced burnout), and performance (citizenship and innovative behaviour at work).The ILI can be used in practical settings to assess and develop leadership, for instance, in 360‐degree feedback systems.The short form of the ILI is also a valid assessment of identity leadership, and this is likely to be useful in a range of applied contexts (e.g., those where there is a premium on cost and time or when comparing multiple leaders or multiple time points). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating empowerment and creativity theories, this study simultaneously explores the context‐specific (i.e., access to resources [AR] and access to information [AI]) and actor‐related (i.e., organization‐based self‐esteem [OBSE]) mechanisms in the relationship between empowering leadership and employee creativity. Furthermore, drawing on the interactionist perspective of creativity, it examines how AR and AI may interact with OBSE to influence creativity. Multisource data were collected from 217 employees and their supervisors using a three‐wave, time‐lagged research design. The results reveal that OBSE and AR mediate the relationship between empowering leadership and creativity. Moreover, AR moderates the relationship between OBSE and creativity, such that this relationship is significant only when AR is high. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. Practitioner points: Empowering leaders may stimulate creativity by impacting their employees' OBSE and access to resources.A possible way for leaders to facilitate creativity is to simultaneously promote employees' OBSE and provide them with the necessary resources [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Directive leadership and participative leadership are two fundamental sets of behaviours leaders employ to manage teams, yet little is known about their antecedents. Drawing on regulatory mode theory, we propose that team leaders high in locomotion orientation – the dispositional propensity to control movements and carry them forward – prefer directive leadership to ‘keep moving’, while team leaders high in assessment orientation – the dispositional propensity to compare between means and options – prefer participative leadership to ‘get the best’. We further hypothesize that directive leadership increases team efficiency but decreases team creativity, whereas participative leadership increases team creativity but decreases team efficiency. Based on multisource and time‐lagged data from 75 management consulting project teams, regression and bootstrapping results support most of the hypotheses. Supplementary analysis reveals that participative leadership has an inverted U‐shaped relationship with team efficiency when directive leadership is low, implying that leadership is a complex behavioural process rather than a simple choice between seemingly contradictory behaviours. We discuss the findings’ implications for the leadership, regulatory mode, and team literature. Practitioner Points: Leaders should be aware of both the bright and the dark sides of leadership behaviours. Leaders high in locomotion personality should incorporate participative leadership behaviours such as listening to suggestions and communicating with followers in decision‐making when directive leadership behaviours are not functional. Leaders high in assessment personality should spend more attention to the pace of teamwork by incorporating directive leadership behaviours such as giving clear orders and addressing deadlines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the role of leader personality (i.e., the Big 5 traits: Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Openness, Extraversion, and Neuroticism) and gender in self–other (dis)agreement (SOA) in ratings of leadership. We contend that certain aspects of the leader's persona may be more or less related to self‐ or other‐ratings of the leader's behaviour if those aspects are (1) more or less observable by others, (2) more or less related to internal thoughts versus external behaviours, (3) more or less prone to self‐enhancement or self‐denigrating biases, or (4) more or less socially desirable. We utilize statistical methodologies that capture fully the effects of multiple independent variables on the congruence between two dependent variables (Edwards, , Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64, 307), which previously have not been applied to this area of research. Our results support hypotheses predicting less SOA as leader Conscientiousness increases and greater SOA as Agreeableness and Neuroticism increase. Additionally, we found gender to be an important factor in SOA; female leaders exhibited greater SOA than did their male counterparts. We discuss the implications of these findings, limitations, and future research directions. Practitioner points: Popular practices such as 360‐degree feedback may reveal discrepancies between a person's self‐ratings and other's ratings. Although often attributed to a lack of self‐awareness, these discrepancies also may be explained by factors such as the personality and gender of the focal individual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Job loss is a pervasive experience affecting millions of workers around the globe annually. To investigate lay‐offs from the perspective of those who are affected, we conducted a lagged study examining lay‐off victims’ experiences of supervisory justice, top management justice, and organizational support. We test the hypotheses that the relationships between supervisory justice and lay‐off victims’ subsequent experiences of top management justice as well as organizational support are moderated by supervisors’ prototypicality of their team. Results from our study conducted during lay‐off process indicated that supervisory justice had a positive lagged impact on lay‐off victims’ unfolding experiences of both (1) top management justice and (2) organizational support for supervisors who were viewed as highly (but not lowly) prototypical of the team that both supervisors and subordinates were part of. Our study identifies a theoretically grounded moderator that may account for the presence (or absence) of cross‐foci effects found in previous multifoci justice studies. Moreover, our results shed light on the development of justice perceptions by demonstrating the impact of lower‐level supervisors in translating subordinates’ perceptions of justice of the supervisor to that of the top management. Findings suggest that supervisors have an important role to play in managing (for better or worse) the potentially harmful consequences associated with organizational redundancies. Practitioner points: Prototypical supervisors are ‘gatekeepers’ who are able to influence their subordinates’ relationship with the organization and its management. Involving supervisors in critical events such as lay‐offs may be important to effectively manage employees’ concerns. It may not be well advised to overly centralize responsibility for communicating information regarding lay‐offs under human resource departments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We integrated ideas from literature on error management culture, leadership motivation, and career development to create several contributions for the research literature. First, we examined two situational factors - error management/aversion culture perceptions - that affect employees' leadership-relevant motivations. Second, we distinguish between two types of leader motivations, motivation to lead ( MTL) and motivation to develop leadership skills ( MTDL). We offer evidence of discriminant and predictive validity of the two leadership motivations on key leadership processes and outcomes. Third, we tested a linkage model in which error management/aversion perceptions influenced leadership motivations ( MTL and MTDL) and these motivations predicted leadership capacity and leader career success (i.e., promotions, increased leadership responsibility, and pay increases). Based upon multisource data collected from 151 employees and their supervisors from diverse occupations and organizations over a period of 1 year, we found that error management perceptions were positively associated with social-normative MTL (the motive to lead out of a sense of duty and obligation) and with MTDL whereas perceptions of error aversion were negatively related with affective-identity and non-calculative MTL. MTDL was distinguishable from MTL and demonstrated better predictive validity on leadership capacity and career success than MTL. We discuss a number of implications for both theory and practice. Practitioner Points Creating a culture in which errors are constructively managed enhances leadership motivations, leadership capacity (leader behaviour, development, and potential), and career success., In managing leadership development and performance, distinguishing between motivation to be a leader and motivation to develop leadership skills is important, both in terms of how these motivations are influenced by error management and aversion and in terms of the how the motivations influence leadership capacity and success. Motive to lead out of a sense of duty is key. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the existing leadership literature, the role of context for shaping the effectiveness of leadership is yet to be fully understood. One type of context that poses particular challenges for leaders is an environment where safety is highly critical (i.e., high exposure to risk and likelihood of an accident). We hypothesize that such environments call for specific transformational and transactional leadership behaviours, which differ from those behaviours most effective in less safety-critical contexts. We tested for moderating effects of perceptions of hazard exposure and accident likelihood on the relationship between transformational leadership and Management-By-Exception-Active with safety and job performance outcomes. The moderation effects of accident likelihood on the link between transformational/ MBEA leadership and subordinate performance were supported, demonstrating variation in the effectiveness of leader behaviours dependent on followers' perceptions about the likelihood for an accident. MBEA leadership was found to be more strongly linked to contextual performance and safety participation if accident likelihood was high, but not under low accident likelihood conditions. Transformational leadership was found to be less strongly related to these performance outcomes in contexts where safety was perceived as highly critical. Our findings have important theoretical and practical implications, and call into question the universality of the transformational-transactional leadership framework. Practical considerations focus on the implications for managers and supervisors who operate in safety-critical contexts. Practitioner points Safety-critical contexts pose particular challenges to leaders. If safety is perceived as highly critical, leaders and/or followers may hold different expectations about leadership and different leadership styles could be required compared to contexts where safety is not critical., Perceived effectiveness of transformational leadership and Management-By-Exception-Active for employees' safety participation and contextual performance is influenced by employees' perceptions of the risk for an accident within their work context., Management-By-Exception-Active is effective for enhancing team members' extra effort for safety and contextual performance if the perceived risk of an accident is high, but less effective if perceptions of accident likelihood are low., Managers and supervisors should therefore pay attention to employees' perceptions of risk of an accident and the factors that determine how employees perceive their context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored the effects of employees' organizational efficacy perceptions on their subsequent behaviour and performance. Study 1 demonstrated the discriminant validity of organizational efficacy and its significant incremental contribution to the prediction of job performance over the variance explained by other efficacy beliefs and organization-directed constructs. Study 2 tested our hypotheses using multilevel analyses of 2-wave longitudinal data collected over a 2-year period from 846 employees of 105 work teams. Organizational efficacy perceptions significantly predicted employees' subsequent helping behaviour and job performance. These relationships were more pronounced when an employee's efficacy perceptions were congruent with those of other team members. Growth curve analysis showed that such perceptual congruence increased over time when the focal employee experienced a high level of support from team leaders. The study contributes to extant efficacy literature by establishing organizational efficacy as a new and meaningful dimension that predicts important employee outcomes. Practitioner points The findings provide practitioners with a demonstration of how employees' organizational efficacy perceptions affect work outcomes and predict their job performance and helping behaviour., The study highlights the importance of perceptual fit in organizational efficacy by showing how organizational efficacy perceptions improve outcomes when team members agree on their perceptions., The findings provide practitioners with insights into the role of team leaders' supportive leadership in promoting perceptual fit among team members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present research was to integrate and extend theorizing on transformational leadership, self-determination, and work engagement. Specifically, we tested experimentally our hypotheses that the satisfaction of followers' basic psychological needs (i.e., for competence, relatedness, and autonomy) and work engagement mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and performance. A total of 190 participants worked on a brainstorming task under either a transformational or a non-transformational leadership condition. Followers' performance was operationalized through quantity, quality, and persistence. Results revealed that satisfaction of the needs for competence and relatedness mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and work engagement, which, in turn, was positively related to quality, quantity, and persistence. Taken together, these findings are largely in line with our theoretical model and support Bass' ( Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press, 1985) and Burns' ( Leadership. New York: Harper & Row, 1978) theories on needs satisfaction being a central mechanism behind transformational leadership. Practitioner points The results of this study suggest that organizations can benefit from implementing measures to increase employees' work engagement, because this can enhance employees' performance., Furthermore, the study provides an indication of how to design such measures. It suggests that initiatives focusing on followers' basic psychological needs satisfaction (especially of the needs for competence and relatedness) are particularly effective., Finally, our findings indicate that transformational leadership is one concrete way to foster employees' needs satisfaction and, consequently, work engagement and performance. Hence, integrating the frameworks of transformational leadership and followers' psychological needs can provide valuable insights for leadership development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theoretical model of safety leadership, which incorporated both transformational and active transactional leadership styles, was tested using meta-analytic path analysis. The final model showed that transformational leadership had a positive association with both perceived safety climate and safety participation, with perceived safety climate partially mediating the effect of leadership on safety participation. Active transactional leadership had a positive association with perceived safety climate, safety participation and safety compliance. The effect of leadership on safety compliance was partially mediated by perceived safety climate and the effect on safety participation fully mediated by perceived safety climate. The findings suggest that active transactional leadership is important in ensuring compliance with rules and regulations, whereas transformational leadership is primarily associated with encouraging employee participation in safety. Therefore, in line with the augmentation hypothesis of leadership, a combination of both transformational and transactional styles appeared to be most beneficial for safety. Avenues for further research and practical implications in terms of leadership training and development are discussed. Practitioner Points Developed and tested a model of safety leadership, which shows that both transformational and active transactional leadership styles are important aspects of effective safety leadership., Study has implications for practitioners who are involved with the design of leadership training and development programmes, as such programmes should be tailored to focus on a range of leader behaviours that encompass active transactional as well as transformational style., Findings suggest that leadership styles have a differential effect on safety compliance and safety participation - thus, training and development programmes should make specific links between leader behaviours and their subsequent influence on employee behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a meta-analysis of 25 individual differences proposed to be related to effective leadership, with an emphasis on comparing trait-like (e.g. personality and intelligence) to state-like individual differences (e.g. knowledge and skills). The results indicate that although both trait-like (achievement motivation, energy, dominance, honesty/integrity, self-confidence, creativity, and charisma) and state-like (interpersonal skills, oral communication, written communication, administrative/management skills, problem-solving skills, and decision making) individual differences were consistent predictors of effective leadership, the impact of trait-like and state-like individual differences was modest overall and did not differ substantially (ρ= .27 and .26, respectively). Finally, organizational level of the leader, method of predictor and criterion measurement, and organization type moderated the relationship between individual differences and effective leadership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Top management teams are worldwide largely composed of men, with relatively few female members. The gender ratio in top management is indicative of the position of women in management within the organization, as well as related to leadership behaviours of male and female managers. In the present study, the relative importance of societal culture, organizational, and individual characteristics in explaining leadership behaviours and the associations of gender and gender ratio with leadership behaviours are studied. Hypotheses are tested with multi-level analyses using a dataset with information from subordinates rating leadership behaviours of 12,546 managers in 437 organizations in 32 countries. The results show that in a three-level model (i.e., societal, organizational, and individual level) to explain leadership behaviours, differences in leadership behaviours are predominantly explained by individual differences, followed by organizational and societal differences. Further, after controlling for societal influences, a higher gender ratio (relatively more female managers), was positively associated with consideration and negatively related to initiating structure. Moreover, for male managers, there was a negative association between gender ratio and initiating structure, indicating that male managers in organizations with more female managers tend to engage less in initiating structure, whereas the leadership behaviours of female managers were not associated with the gender ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the determinants of team proactive performance amongst 43 shift teams from a UK chemical processing plant. Using external ratings of team proactive performance, the study found that the most proactive teams were those with higher levels of self-management, transformational team leaders, and a higher- than-average level of proactive personality. The relationship between transformational leadership and team proactive performance was mediated by favourable interpersonal norms. In addition, lower diversity of proactive personality amongst team members had an indirect association with team proactive performance via its negative effect on favourable interpersonal norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analysed qualitatively the nature of instructor behaviours and their relationship to leadership. The Critical Incident Technique was used to collect effective and ineffective incidents of instructor behaviour in military training from both instructors' and trainees' perspectives (total incidents = 1150, effective = 696, ineffective = 494), across the three UK Armed Services. Nine dimensions of instructor behaviour were developed with high inter- and intra-coder reliability. No differences were found between instructor and trainee generated incidents or among the three Armed Services. About 82% of the incidents could be recoded with high inter-coder reliability into categories of both transformational and transactional leadership. Strong relationships emerged between the following dimensions of both instructor behaviour and leadership respectively: Showing and Demonstrating, and Appropriate Role Model; Using Instructional Strategies and Intellectual Stimulation; Feedback, Practice and Adapting, and Individual Consideration; Forms of Punishment and Control, and Contingent and Non-contingent Punishment. These results inform not only the relationships between instructor behaviours and leadership but also the future training of military instructors, particularly the balance between a traditional authoritarian approach and an individualised supportive one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined self-related subordinate variables as moderators of relationships between supervisors' leadership behaviours (transformational as well as active-corrective transactional leadership) and subordinates' innovative behaviour and task performance. Based on behavioural plasticity and self-monitoring theory, we hypothesized that these associations would be moderated by subordinates' organization-based self-esteem and by their propensity to modify self-presentation, a major facet of the self-monitoring construct. Field survey data (N = 161) collected in research and development, marketing and human resources departments of several German companies revealed that transformational leadership positively predicted both criteria, whereas active-corrective transactional leadership negatively predicted innovation. As hypothesized, transformational leadership related more strongly and positively to innovation for subordinates low in organization-based self-esteem. When subordinates were low in self-presentation propensity, active-corrective transactional leadership was negatively, and transformational leadership was positively associated with task performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transformational leadership based interventions were assessed using a pre-test, post-test, and control group design. Leaders (N = 54) from 21 long-term health care organizations were randomly assigned to general transformational leadership training, safety-specific transformational leadership training, or a control group. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that leadership training resulted in significant effects on manager post-training ratings of safety attitudes, intent to promote safety, and self-efficacy. The effects of leadership training on employee (N = 115) perceptions of leader safety-specific transformational leadership, safety climate, safety participation, safety compliance, safety-related events and, injuries were also assessed. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), with the pre-test scores as the covariates, showed that leadership training resulted in significant effects on the safety-specific transformational leadership and safety climate outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a test of hypotheses derived from the integration of principles of path-goal theory (House, 1996) and transformational leadership theory (Bass, 1985), data collected from 179 high school teachers and their principals were examined with hierarchical regression analysis. Augmentation analysis indicated that transactional leadership had a stronger role in explaining unique criterion variance beyond the contribution of transformational leadership, than did transformational leadership relative to transactional leadership. In addition, both the transactional and transformational leadership had a negative interactive relationship for predicting the outcome of performance, such that leader vision and leader intellectual stimulation were more positively correlated with employee performance when leader use of contingent reward was low. These augmentation effects, in conjunction with the findings of negative moderation, suggest that transactional leadership may have greater potential predictive value than previously assumed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A supervisor's behaviour may not be the only factor that determines the performance of team members (Kerr & Jermier, 1978). Taking this postulation as a basis, we formulated a model to describe how service climate moderates the effects of the leadership behaviour of supervisors. When the organization and working environment are not conducive to providing a good service to colleagues and customers, the supervisor's leadership behaviour makes an important difference. However, when the service climate is good, a supervisor's leadership behaviour makes no substantial difference. This hypothesis was supported in an examination of the service quality of 511 frontline service providers as sampled from 55 work groups in 6 service organizations. The employee service quality was low when both the service climate and the supervisor's leadership behaviour were lacking. However, when the service climate was unfavourable, effective leadership behaviour played a compensatory role in maintaining performance standards towards external customers. When the leadership was ineffective, a favourable service climate nullified the negative effect on service quality to internal customers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the theoretical and empirical distinction between developmental leadership and supportive leadership, which are currently encompassed in a single sub dimension of transformational leadership, individualized consideration. Items were selected to assess these constructs, and hypotheses regarding the differential effects of developmental and supportive leadership were proposed. Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the proposed distinction between developmental and supportive leadership, although these leadership factors were very strongly associated. Structural equation modelling and multi-level modelling results indicated that both developmental leadership and supportive leadership displayed unique relationships with theoretically selected outcome measures. Developmental leadership displayed significantly stronger relationships with job satisfaction, career certainty, affective commitment to the organization and role breadth self-efficacy than did supportive leadership. Results provide initial evidence in support of the discriminant validity of these two types of leadership. Discussion focuses on the need to further examine the construct of developmental leadership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theories of transformational leadership imply that effective leaders should engage in a constellation of appropriate behaviours. Further, since an important component of transformational leadership is the leader's ability to create a consensus or a similar mindset among subordinates, attributions that the leader is transformational are likely to depend on both the leader's behaviours and the extent to which subordinates perceive the leader similarly. In the present study, these notions were tested using a multi-source data set comprising 68 focal managers, 285 subordinates, 495 peers, and 68 supervisors. Results indicated that leaders who engage in higher levels of appropriate leader behaviours are more likely to have followers who agree in their perceptions of the leader. In addition, significant interactions were found between leader behaviours and agreement among subordinates, suggesting that agreement moderates the relationship between leader behaviours and attributions of transformational leadership style. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a sample of 402 employees from the banking and finance sectors in China and India, we found that transformational leadership is positively related to organizational commitment and job satisfaction, and negatively related to job and work withdrawal. We also found that collective efficacy mediated the contribution of transformational leadership to job and work withdrawal and partially mediated the contribution of transformational leadership to organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Implications and directions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a field study in department stores it was investigated whether the gender-typing of the organizational context influences leadership behaviour of male and female managers. Shop assistants in masculine- to feminine-typed departments described their manager in terms of task-oriented, people-oriented, and transformational leadership styles. As predicted, no gender differences in leadership styles were found. The gender-typing of departments did not affect perceived leadership styles. Another contextual variable, the site of the department store, unexpectedly influenced leader behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An argument is developed and tested that a superior's perceived leadership style affects subordinates' information inquiry in an organizational setting. Transformational and transactional leadership theories were utilized to postulate that the content and frequency of information sought by a subordinate from his/her superior will vary depending on that superior's leadership style. This relationship was tested with individual difference predictors such as job-related tolerance for ambiguity, organization-based self-esteem, and work-domain goal orientation of subordinates, in mind. Empirical results, based on the field study using survey data and longitudinal checklist recording, show general support for the model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]