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Shoulder tendon injuries are frequently seen in the presence of abnormal scapular motion, termed scapular dyskinesis. The cause and effect relationship between scapular dyskinesis and shoulder injury has not been directly defined. The objective of this study was to develop and use an animal model to examine the initiation and progression of pathological changes in the rotator cuff and biceps tendon. 60 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized into two groups: nerve transection (to induce scapular dyskinesis, SD) or sham nerve transection (control). The animals were sacrificed 4 and 8 weeks after surgery. Shoulder function and passive joint mechanics were evaluated over time. Tendon mechanical, histological, organizational, and compositional properties were evaluated at 4 and 8 weeks. Gross observation demonstrated alterations in scapular motion, consistent with scapular “winging”. Shoulder function, passive internal range of motion, and tendon mechanical properties were significantly altered. Histology results, consistent with tendon pathology (rounded cell shape and increased cell density), were observed and protein expression of collagen III and decorin was altered. This study presents a new model of scapular dyskinesis that can rigorously evaluate cause and effect relationships in a controlled manner. These results identify scapular dyskinesis as a causative mechanical mechanism for shoulder tendon pathology.

The rotator cuff assists in shoulder movement and provides dynamic stability to the glenohumeral joint. Specifically, the anterior–posterior (AP) force balance, provided by the subscapularis anteriorly and the infraspinatus and teres minor posteriorly, is critical for joint stability and concentric rotation of the humeral head on the glenoid. However, limited understanding exists of the consequences associated with disruption of the AP force balance (due to tears of both the supraspinatus and infraspinatus tendons) on joint function and joint damage. We investigated the effect of disrupting the APforce balance on joint function and joint damage in an overuse rat model. Twenty-eight rats underwent 4 weeks of overuse to produce a tendinopathic condition and were then randomized into two surgical groups: Detachment of the supraspinatus only or detachment of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus tendons. Rats were then gradually returned to their overuse protocol. Quantitative ambulatory measures including medial/lateral, propulsion, braking, and vertical forces were significantly different between groups. Additionally, cartilage and adjacent tendon properties were significantly altered. These results identify joint imbalance as a mechanical mechanism for joint damage and demonstrate the importance of preserving rotator cuff balance when treating active cuff tear patients.

Rotator cuff tears are common conditions that can alter shoulder mechanics and may lead to damage of intact joint tissues. These injuries are of particular concern in populations who perform tasks requiring repetitive overhead activity (e.g., athletes and laborers) and who are likely to return to aggressive pre-injury activity levels despite limited understanding of the potentially damaging effects on the remaining tissues. Therefore, we investigated the effect of returning to overuse activity following a supraspinatus tear on shoulder function and the mechanical properties of the remaining intact tendons and glenoid cartilage. Forty rats underwent 4 weeks of overuse activity to create a tendinopathic condition followed by detachment of the supraspinatus tendon and were then randomized into two groups: continued overuse or cage activity. Ambulatory measurements were performed throughout the 8 weeks prior to euthaniasia, and properties of the adjacent tendons and cartilage were evaluated. Results demonstrated that shoulder function was not compromised in the return to overuse group. However, alterations of the glenoid cartilage and biceps tendon properties occurred. Our results help define the contributory roles of common mechanical injury mechanisms and provide a framework by which physicians could better prescribe long-term treatment strategies for patients.

Rotator cuff repairs are commonly performed to reduce pain and restore function. Tears are also treated successfully without surgical intervention; however, the effect that a torn tendon has on the glenohumeral cartilage remains unknown. Clinically, a correlation between massive rotator cuff tears and glenohumeral arthritis has often been observed. This may be due to a disruption in the balance of forces at the shoulder, resulting in migration of the humeral head and subsequently, abnormal loading of the glenoid. Our lab previously demonstrated changes in ambulation and intact tendon mechanical properties following supraspinatus and infraspinatus rotator cuff tendon tears in a rat model. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of supraspinatus and infraspinatus rotator cuff tears on the glenoid cartilage. Nine rats underwent unilateral detachment of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus tendons and were sacrificed after four weeks. Cartilage thickness significantly decreased in the antero-inferior region of injured shoulders. In addition, equilibrium elastic modulus significantly decreased in the center, antero-superior, antero-inferior, and superior regions. These results suggest that altered loading after rotator cuff injury may lead to damage to the joint with significant pain and dysfunction. Clinically, understanding the mechanical processes involved with joint damage will allow physicians to better advise patients.

The rotator cuff musculature imparts dynamic stability to the glenohumeral joint. In particular, the balance between the subscapularis anteriorly and the infraspinatus posteriorly, often referred to as the rotator cuff “force couple,” is critical for concavity compression and concentric rotation of the humeral head. Restoration of this anterior-posterior force balance after chronic, massive rotator cuff tears may allow for deltoid compensation, but no in vivo studies have quantitatively demonstrated an improvement in shoulder function. Our goal was to determine if restoring this balance of forces improves shoulder function after two-tendon rotator cuff tears in a rat model. Forty-eight rats underwent detachment of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus. After four weeks, rats were randomly assigned to three groups: no repair, infraspinatus repair, and two-tendon repair. Quantitative ambulatory measures including medial/lateral forces, braking, propulsion, and step width were significantly different between the infraspinatus and no repair group and similar between the infraspinatus and two-tendon repair groups at almost all time points. These results suggest that repairing the infraspinatus back to its insertion site without repair of the supraspinatus can improve shoulder function to a level similar to repairing both the infraspinatus and supraspinatus tendons. Clinically, a partial repair of the posterior cuff after a two tendon tear may be sufficient to restore adequate function. An in vivo model system for two-tendon repair of massive rotator cuff tears is presented.