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The nocturnal surge of melatonin is the endocrine expression of the circadian system and is essential for organizing the timing of various endogenous processes. Previous works suggest that, in the beginning of a defense response, the increase in circulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) leads to a transient block of nocturnal melatonin production and promotes a disruption of internal time organization. In the present paper, the concentration of melatonin and cytokines [TNF-alpha, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-12] in the colostrum (postdelivery day 3) and in the milk (postdelivery days 10, 15, 20 and 30) obtained at midday and midnight from mothers who gave birth by vaginal or cesarean section were compared. The nocturnal melatonin surge observed 3 days after vaginal delivery was absent after cesarean section. IL-12 presented no daily variation in either case, while daily variations in IFN-gamma, IL-10, IL-4 and IL-5 were observed after vaginal delivery and cesarean section. On the other hand, the increase in TNF-alpha after cesarean section resulted in suppression of the nocturnal melatonin surge. Daily variation of IL-2 was only observed after recovery of the nocturnal melatonin surge, 30 days after cesarean section. The present paper supports the hypothesis of a cross-talk between the pineal gland and the immune system, which could represent a putative immune-pineal axis.

In a previous paper we demonstrated that properly timed I-hr infusions of 50 ng melatonin effectively suppressed testicular development in juvenile Siberian hamsters. Only melatonin infused between 20:00 and 21:00 hr was effective in animals exposed to 16L (lights off 20:00 hr). In this paper we further investigate the importance of the coincidence and duration hypotheses of daily exposure of melatonin. Prepubertal Siberian hamsters received either 4- or 8-hr melatonin infusions at various times either on long photoperiod (LD 16:8 = 16L) or on short photoperiod (LD 10:14 = 10L). Daily 8-hr melatonin infusions suppressed testicular development in both photoperiods. Daily 4-hr, 50 ng/hr, melatonin infusions at 17:00--21:00 hr inhibited testicular growth in 16L and daily 4-hr melatonin infusions (either 50 ng/h or 50 ng/day) inhibited testicular growth at 17:00-21:00 hr in 10L. We also tested the efficacy of an interrupted melatonin infusion of long duration (8 hr). Pinealectomized prepubertal male Siberian hamsters, born on 16L, were infused with two signals of 4 hr separated by an interval of 2 hr. Melatonin-infused groups had significantly inhibited testicular growth compared to vehicle-infused animals. Testicular development was maximally inhibited only in those groups in which the period of melatonin sensitivity identified in the previous paper (20:00-21:00 hr) overlapped or immediately followed a period of melatonin infusion. Considering the restrictions of the experimental design employed in these studies, the results are best explained by the hypothesis that the photoperiodic gonadal response in juvenile Siberian hamsters is regulated by the coincidence in time of exogenously administered melatonin with an intrinsic rhythm of sensitivity to melatonin, which occurred at 20:00 21:00 hr. The duration of the melatonin signal alone can not explain the results.

In vitro differentiation of stem cells into functional gametes remains of great interest in the biomedical field. Skin-derived stem cells (SDSCs) are an adult stem cells that provides a wide range of clinical applications without inherent ethical restrictions. In this paper, porcine SDSCs were successfully differentiated into primordial germ cell-like cells (PGCLCs) in conditioned media. The PGCLCs were characterized in terms of cell morphology, marker gene expression, and epigenetic properties. Furthermore, we also found that 25 μM melatonin (MLT) significantly increased the proliferation of the SDSC-derived PGCLCs while acting through the MLT receptor type 1 (MT1). RNA-seq results found the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway was more active when PGCLCs were cultured with MLT. Moreover, the effect of MLT was attenuated by the use of S26131 (MT1 antagonist), crenolanib (platelet-derived growth factor receptor inhibitor), U0126 (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor), or CCG-1423 (serum response factor transcription inhibitor), suggesting that MLT promotes the proliferation processes through the MAPK pathway. Taken together, this study highlights the role of MLT in promoting PGCLCs proliferation. Importantly, this study provides a suitable in vitro model for use in translational studies and could help to answer numerous remaining questions related to germ cell physiology.

By means of teledischarge techniques from the database MEDLINE we selected those documents that contained in their title one or several of the following descriptors: pineal*, epiphys*, or melatonin*, in addition to the descriptor pineal-body in the MESH (Medical Subject Headings) section. A total of 7,617 original documents published between 1966 and 1994 were extracted that dealt with any aspect related with the pineal gland or its main secretary product, melatonin. The main bibliometric laws were applied: Price's Law on the increase in scientific literature, Bradford's Law on the dispersion of the scientific literature, and Lotka's Law on the author's productivity. Furthermore, we have analyzed the participation index (PaI) of the main countries within the global production, the productivity index of the authors (PI), and the number of authors/paper index. Our results demonstrate an exponential increase of the scientific literature on the pineal gland ("r" value = 0.983, in contrast with a "r" value = 0.966 after the linear adjustment). The number of publications on melatonin was less than those on other aspects of pineal research until 1991, when this situation was reversed. The journal with the largest number of original papers is Journal of Pineal Research (1st Bradford's zone) with 533 articles, followed by Journal of Neural Transmission (258) and Neuroendocrinology (221), which constituted the 2nd Bradford's zone. The total number of authors is 9,140, responsible for 23,524 authorships. 3.8% of the authors present a PI > or = 1 (large producers), and 64.9% a PI = 0 (occasional authors). Lotka's Law was widely fulfilled in this material since 10.3% of the authors are responsible of 50.2% of all the papers. The average number of authors per paper has changed from 2.29 in 1966 to 3.85 in 1994. The most productive country (during the interval between 1988-1994) was USA (PaI = 30.6), followed by Japan (7.15), United Kingdom (6.45), Germany (6.37), France (6.26), Italy (6.15) and Spain (5.34). Of the total number articles published, 86.9% are in English.

The pharmacological potential of targeting selectively melatonin MT1 or MT2 receptors has not yet been exploited in medicine. Research using selective MT1/MT2 receptor ligands and MT1/MT2 receptor knockout mice has indicated that the activation of MT2 receptors selectively increases non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep whereas MT1 receptors seem mostly implicated in the regulation of REM sleep. Moreover, MT1 knockout mice show an increase in NREM sleep, while MT2 knockout a decrease, suggesting an opposite role of these two receptors. A recent paper in mice by Sharma et al (J Pineal Res, 2018, e12498) found that MT1 but not MT2 receptors are expressed on orexin neurons in the perifornical lateral hypothalamus (PFH). Moreover, after injecting melatonin or luzindole into the mouse PFH, the authors suggest that melatonin promotes NREM sleep because activates PFH MT1 receptors, which in turn inhibit orexin neurons that are important in promoting arousal and maintaining wakefulness. In this commentary, we have critically commented on some of these findings on the bases of previous literature. In addition, we highlighted the fact that no conclusions could be drawn on the melatonin receptor subtype mediating the effects of melatonin on sleep because the authors used the non-selective MT1/MT2 receptors antagonist luzindole. More solid research should further characterize the pharmacological function of these two melatonin receptors in sleep.

In this paper, we analyze the biological relevance of melatonin in diabetogenesis. As has recently been demonstrated, melatonin decreases insulin secretion via specific melatonin receptor isoforms (MT1 and MT2) in the pancreatic β-cells. In addition, type 2 diabetic rats, as well as patients, exhibit decreased melatonin levels, whereas the levels in type 1 diabetic rats are increased. The latter effects were normalized by insulin substitution, which signifies that a specific receptor-mediated insulin-melatonin antagonism exists. These results are in agreement with several recent genome-wide association studies, which have identified a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the MTNR1B gene, encoding the MT2 receptor, that were closely associated with a higher prognostic risk of developing type 2 diabetes. We hypothesize that catecholamines, which decrease insulin levels and stimulate melatonin synthesis, control insulin-melatonin interactions. The present results support this assertion as we show that catecholamines are increased in type 1 but are diminished in type 2 diabetes. Another important line of inquiry involves the fact that melatonin protects the β-cells against functional overcharge and, consequently, hinders the development of type 2 diabetes. In this context, it is striking that at advanced ages, melatonin levels are reduced and the incidence of type 2 diabetes is increased. Thus, melatonin appears to have a protective biological role. Here, we strongly repudiate misconceptions, resulting from observations that melatonin reduces the plasma insulin level, that the blockage of melatonin receptors would be of benefit in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Melatonin is an endogenous indoleamine, produced mainly by the pineal gland. Melatonin has been proven to have chronobiotic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, anxiolytic and sedative properties. There are also experimental and clinical data supporting an analgesic role of melatonin. In experimental studies, melatonin shows potent analgesic effects in a dose-dependent manner. In clinical studies, melatonin has been shown to have analgesic benefits in patients with chronic pain (fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, migraine). The physiologic mechanism underlying the analgesic actions of melatonin has not been clarified. The effects may be linked to G(i) -coupled melatonin receptors, to G(i) -coupled opioid μ-receptors or GABA-B receptors with unknown downstream changes with a consequential reduction in anxiety and pain. Also, the repeated administration of melatonin improves sleep and thereby may reduce anxiety, which leads to lower levels of pain. In this paper, we review the current evidence regarding the analgesic properties of melatonin in animals and humans with chronic pain.

Glaucoma is a frequent ophthalmologic condition leading to chronic progressive optic neuropathy, which can result in visual impairment and blindness. In addition, glaucoma is associated with a dysregulation of circadian rhythms, as well as with a high incidence of sleep disorders, depression, and anxiety. However, because of their high comorbidity in older age, these conditions have not received much scientific attention and are often undertreated. In the current paper, we review the available literature on the role of melatonergic mechanisms in glaucoma, regulation of circadian rhythms, and depression. The literature is presented as a narrative review, providing an overview on the most important and clinically relevant publications. Recently, there has been evidence for a progressive loss of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC) because of oxidative stress in glaucoma. As ipRGC are responsible for the photic transduction to the circadian system and subsequent melatonin secretion, and melatonin is involved in the pathophysiology of circadian desynchronization, sleep disorder, and depression, an impairment of photo-dependent melatonergic signaling may be a common pathway connecting glaucoma with these comorbidities. This fact, as well as the proven retinal neuroprotective role of melatonin, suggests that melatonergic drugs provide a potentially promising treatment strategy supplementing the management of intraocular pressure by pharmacological and surgical measures. Additionally, multidisciplinary treatment focusing on depression and normalization of circadian rhythms might be beneficial for glaucoma patients. Furthermore, glaucoma might be a useful model for studying the pathophysiological interactions between the melatonergic, circadian, and mood systems.

Serotonin N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) catalyzes the conversion of serotonin to N-acetylserotonin, which is the immediate precursor for formation of melatonin. Although it is known that AANAT is degraded via the proteasomal proteolysis, detailed mechanisms are not defined. In this paper, we tested the in vivo role of proteasome inhibition on AANAT activity and melatonin release and examined the amino acid residues in AANAT that contribute to the proteasome degradation. We have shown that inhibition of proteasome activities in vivo in the intact pineal gland fails to prevent the light-induced suppression of melatonin secretion. Furthermore, in cell lines stably expressing AANAT, inhibition of proteasomal proteolysis, which resulted in a large accumulation of AANAT protein, similarly failed to increase AANAT enzyme activity proportional to the amount of proteins accumulated. Site-directed mutagenesis analysis of AANAT revealed that the AANAT degradation is independent of lysine and the two surface cysteine residues. Deletion analysis of N-terminus identified the second amino acid leucine (L2) as the key residue that contributes to the proteasomal proteolysis of AANAT protein. These results suggest that rat AANAT protein is degraded via the N-end rule pathway of proteasomal proteolysis and the leucine at the N-terminus appears to be the key residue recognized by N-end rule pathway.

Low concentrations (nanomolar) of melatonin had been previously shown to inhibit cell proliferation in several cancer cell lines as well as in experimental animal models. Additionally, cell growth inhibition and differentiation of prostate cancer cell lines by high concentrations (micromolar to millimolar) of melatonin have been recently reported. In the present paper, we show the induction of apoptosis by high doses of melatonin in the human neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-MC. We found accumulation of cells in the G2/M cell cycle phase and induction of cellular death, measured as lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) released into the culture medium, under millimolar concentration of melatonin. Apoptosis was evaluated using 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining, DNA gel electrophoresis, electron microscopy, and annexin V binding. Apoptosis progressed through the classical pathway, which involves caspase-3 activation. Cell death was dose and time-dependent; the lowest effective concentration of melatonin was 100 microm. Treatment with 1 mm melatonin for 6 days induced cell death in 75% of the cells. This novel finding shows that a nontoxic natural indoleamine may be potential therapy for some types of human neuroblastomas.

The main structures involved in the circadian system in mammals are the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus. The SCN contain multiple autonomous single-cell circadian oscillators that are coupled among themselves, generating a single rhythm. However, under determined circumstances, the oscillators may uncouple and generate several rhythmic patterns. Rats exposed to an artificially established 22-h light-dark cycle (T22) express two stable circadian rhythms in their motor activity that reflect the separate activities of two groups of oscillators in the morphologically well-defined ventrolateral and dorsomedial SCN subdivisions. In the experiments described in this paper, we studied the effect of melatonin and diazepam (DZP) administration in drinking water on the dissociated components of rat motor activity exposed to T22, to deduce the possible mechanism of these drugs on the circadian system. In order to suppress the endogenous circadian rhythm of melatonin, in some of the rats the pineal gland or the superior cervical ganglia were removed. The results show that melatonin or DZP treatment increased the manifestation of the light-dependent component to the detriment of the manifestation of the non-light-dependent component and that melatonin, but not DZP, shortens the period of the non-light-dependent component. These findings suggest that both DZP and melatonin favor entrainment to external light, and that melatonin could also act on the SCN, producing changes in the period of the circadian cycle.

The cytoskeleton is a phylogenetically well-preserved structure that plays a key role in cell physiology. Dynamic and differential changes in cytoskeletal organization occur in cellular processes according to the cell type and the specific function. In neurons, microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filament (IF) rearrangements occur during axogenesis, and neurite formation which eventually differentiate into axons and dendrites to constitute synaptic patterns of connectivity. In epithelial cells, dynamic modifications occur in the three main cytoskeletal components and phosphorylation of cytoskeletal associated proteins takes place during the formation of the epithelial cell monolayer that eventually will transport water. In pathological processes such as neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases an abnormal cytoskeletal organization occurs. Melatonin, the main product secreted by pineal gland during dark phase of the photoperiod, is capable of influencing microfilament, microtubule and IF organization by acting as a cytoskeletal modulator. In this paper we will summarize the evidence which provides the data that melatonin regulates cytoskeletal organization and we describe recent findings, which indicate that melatonin effects on microfilament rearrangements in stress fibers are involved in the mechanism by which the indole synchronizes water transport in kidney-derived epithelial cells. In addition, we review recent data, which indicates that melatonin protects the neuro-cytoskeletal organization from damage caused by free radicals contributing to cell survival, in addition to the already described mechanism elicited by the indole to prevent apoptosis and to scavenge free radicals. Moreover, we discuss the implications of an altered cytoskeletal organization for neurodegenerative and psychiatric illnesses and its re-establishment by melatonin.

In chronically inflamed animals, adrenal hormones exert a positive control on the secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland. In this paper, the mechanism of corticosterone as a modulator of melatonin and N-acetylserotonin (NAS) was determined. Rat pineal glands in culture, stimulated for 5 hr with noradrenaline (10 nm), were previously incubated with corticosterone (1.0 nm-1.0 microm) for 48 hr in the presence or absence of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist, mifepristone (1.0 microm), the proteasome inhibitor, N-acetyl-leucinyl-leucinyl-norleucinal-H (ALLN, 12.5 microm) or the antagonist of the nuclear factor kappa B (NFkappaB), pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC, 12.5 microm). Corticosterone potentiated noradrenaline-induced melatonin and NAS production in a bell-shaped manner. The increase in NAS (12.9 +/- 2.7, n=6 versus 34.3 +/- 8.3 ng per pineal) and melatonin (16.3 +/- 2.0, n=6 versus 44.3 +/- 12.9 ng per pineal) content induced by 1 microm corticosterone was blocked by mifepristone, and mimicked by ALLN and PDTC. The presence of GRs was shown by [3H]-dexamethasone binding (0.30 +/- 0.09 pmol/mg protein) and corticosterone inhibition of NFkappaB nuclear translocation was demonstrated by electromobility shift assay. Therefore, corticosterone potentiates noradrenaline-induced melatonin and NAS production through GR inhibition of NFkappaB nuclear translocation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that this relevant pathway for passive and acquired immune response is shown to modulate melatonin production in pineal gland.

Seasonal and circadian changes have been observed in dietary selection and feeding behavior of fish. It is known that the light-dark cycle is the principal mediator of the production of pineal-derived melatonin in fish, and also that the digestive tract synthesizes and secretes melatonin and indeed is the principal extrapineal source of this secretor product, suggesting that melatonin could be involved in the processes of feeding and/or digestion. Fish are capable of regulating their energy intake from separate sources of macronutrients, but the mechanisms of this selection process are unknown. In the present paper, we explored the effect of melatonin administered orally to European sea bass on their selection of encapsulated macronutrients. Melatonin doses of 0.1, 0.5, and 2.5 mg/kg body weight were administered in gelatin capsules. The voluntarily ingested melatonin was absorbed into the fish's plasma, 45 min after the administration reaching a level depending on the dose that was up to 26 times greater than the controls with the highest dose of melatonin. The indole produced a dose-dependent inhibition of total food intake of 9, 26, and 34%, respectively, and also modified the pattern of macronutrient selection. Carbohydrate intake was significantly reduced (by 17, 33, and 42% for the three doses, respectively), but the observed reductions in fat and protein intake were not statistically significant. On the contrary, fat percentage significantly increased for the highest dose, but no changes were observed in the protein or carbohydrate percentages for any of the melatonin doses. In conclusion, orally administered melatonin affected both the amount of food consumed and the pattern of macronutrients selected. This is the first evidence for the existence of neurohumoral mediators involved in the selection of macronutrients in fish.

The pineal hormone melatonin exhibits immunomodulatory activity well documented in mammals and birds. The mechanism of melatonin action within the immune system is, however, poorly understood. In mammalian immune cells in vitro, melatonin acts mainly as an antiapoptotic, oncostatic and antiproliferative agent, and these effects are exerted via specific receptors or are related to its free radical scavenging activity. In previous studies we have found that in short-term chicken splenocyte cultures in vitro melatonin stimulated basil proliferation and inhibited that stimulated with phytohemagglutinin, a T-cell mitogen. This paper is devoted to the involvement of membrane receptors, previously characterised by us as MT2 (Mel(1b)) and Mel(1c) subtypes, in the above mentioned melatonin effects in chicken splenocyte cultures. For this purpose, in present study a nonselective melatonin receptor antagonist, luzindole, and the selective MT2 blocker, 4P-PDOT, were used. The effect of melatonin on second messengers, cyclic adenosine-3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) and inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)), involved in the regulation of proliferation, was examined. We have found that the stimulation of proliferation occurs via Mel(1c) receptor and is associated with the changes in intracellular second messengers concentration: a decrease in cAMP and an increase in IP(3). In contrast, in mitogen-activated splenocytes, melatonin-induced inhibition of proliferation is mediated by MT2 receptors and is related to cAMP accumulation, as well as a decrease in IP(3). In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the stimulatory and inhibitory effect of melatonin on chicken splenocytes in vitro, dependent on the magnitude of cell stimulation, resulted from two different subtypes of membrane receptors.

Alzheimer's disease, among other pathological features, is characterized by an over-accumulation of amyloid-beta peptide, metal ions, and oxidative stress proteins in the brain. Amyloid-beta aggregated peptides with bound metal ions may initiate free radical generation with consequent protein and lipid oxidation, reactive oxygen species formation and eventually neuronal death. Melatonin is able to dramatically reduce the free radical formation which follows the interaction between transition metal ions and amyloid-beta. This paper reports the scavenging effect of melatonin of reactants generated by amyloid peptides in combination with some metal ions.

In the present paper, binding of melatonin to purified cell nuclei from harderian glands of male and female hamsters was assessed. Binding of 125I-melatonin to cell nuclei fulfills the criteria for binding to a receptor site. Binding kinetics exhibit properties such as dependence on time and temperature as well as reversibility, saturability, high affinity and specificity. The dissociation constants (K(D)) and the number of binding sites (B(max)) for the binding of 125I-melatonin to harderian gland nuclei were 260 +/- 56 pm and 12.2 +/- 0.8 fmol/mg protein in male glands, and 280 +/- 43 pm and 9.8 +/- 0.6 fmol/mg protein in female glands, respectively. Competition experiments showed IC50 values for melatonin of 250 +/- 45 pm and 290 +/- 68 pm in male and female glands, respectively. Other indoleamines such as N-acetylserotonine and 5-metoxytryptamine showed IC50 values in the micromolar range, suggesting that the binding sites are specific for melatonin. Hill analyses of the data show nH values of 0.96-0.98, suggesting the existence of a single class of binding sites. These data indicate that specific 125I-melatonin binding sites exist in the cell nuclei of Harderian glands in male as well as in female hamsters, without significant differences between them. The K(D) and B(max) values obtained from the binding in both sexes correlates well with the concentration of melatonin described in these respective Harderian glands. It is hypothesized that the nuclear binding sites of melatonin here described could be a physiological melatonin receptor, which may be involved in the genomic-dependent antioxidant effects of melatonin on hamster Harderian glands elsewhere reported.

Melatonin is an efficient protector against hydrogen peroxide(H2O2)-induced lipid peroxidation and acts in a concentration-dependent manner. Hydrogen peroxide is rather a water stable molecule which is able to cross the cell membrane much better than some important free radicals such as superoxide anion, and consequently its local production can lead to significant spread by diffusion. In this paper we report data regarding some biochemical properties of melatonin as well as the chemical characterization of the major product formed from the interaction between melatonin and H2O2 (N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine) that are consistent with previous data reported by other authors. The effect of melatonin on catalase, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase in in vitro and in vivo experiments is also reported.

Human adult males were exposed to combinations of two illuminances and two broadband spectral power distributions over the course of four night-time sessions. Results showed that melatonin suppression is dominated by short visible wavelengths (420-520 nm), consistent with recently published studies. Although the authors of these recent studies suggest that a novel opsin underlies melatonin suppression, the present paper offers a more conservative interpretation of the data based on what is known about existing photoreceptors and associated neuroanatomy and neurophysiology.

Melatonin is involved in the transduction of light information and the photoperiodic control of many important physiological functions in fish. Although artificial photoperiods have been used to improve fish growth and manipulate reproduction, there is little information about the characteristics of light 'quality'. In this paper we describe the effects of a light pulse in the middle of the dark phase on plasma and ocular melatonin in European sea bass. We first determined the light intensity necessary to elicit a melatonin response using white light of varying intensities (0.6-600 mu W/cm(2), experiment 1). Secondly, we tested the effect of the light spectrum on melatonin production using three differently coloured lights (half-peak bandwidth=434-477, 498-575 and 610-687 nm for the blue, green and red lamp, respectively, experiment 2) and, finally, we determined the effect of light orientation (downwards directed versus upwards directed, experiment 3). The results show that the minimum light intensity needed to inhibit or stimulate melatonin levels in both plasma and the eye was 6.0 mu W/cm(2). A linear correlation was found between the logarithm of light intensity and the relative inhibition. In addition, the blue wavelength was more effective in decreasing melatonin levels in the former and increasing the levels in the latter. Nevertheless, red light at sufficient intensity proved effective at significantly suppressing circulating melatonin. Downwards light had a greater effect than upward-directed illumination in suppressing plasma melatonin. In conclusion, the results point to the importance of giving proper consideration to the characteristics of light, to adequately control melatonin production and its related physiological processes.

The aims of the present study were first to compare the effects of melatonin and vitamin E on the cholestasis syndrome and their protective effect on liver injury, and second, to evaluate the activity of antioxidant enzymes after treatment with these antioxidant drugs. Cholestasis was achieved in adult male Wistar rats by double ligature and section of the extra-hepatic biliary duct. Hepatic and plasma oxidative stress markers were evaluated by changes in the amount of lipid peroxides, measured as malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) in plasma and homogenates of hepatic tissue. Serum bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase (AP), and gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase (GGT) were used to evaluate the severity of cholestasis, and serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were used to evaluate the hepatic injury. Both vitamin E and melatonin were administrated 1 day before and 7 days after bile duct ligation. Acute ligation of the bile duct was accompanied by a significant increased in MDA and a decrease in GSH levels in both plasma and liver, as well as a significant reduction in antioxidant enzymes activities. The overall analysis of both treatments showed that melatonin (500 microg/kg daily) offered significantly better protection against cholestasis and a superior protective effect on hepatic injury than did vitamin E (15 mg/kg daily). Although vitamin E treatment resulted in a reduction of parameters of oxidative stress, the results were significantly better after a much lower daily dose of melatonin. Moreover, melatonin treatment was associated with a significant recovery of antioxidative enzymes. In conclusion, the present paper demonstrates a correlation between the intensity of biliary tract obstruction and increased free radical generation, as well as a direct correlation between the level of oxidative stress and the biochemical markers of liver injury. Melatonin (at a much lower dose than vitamin E) was much more efficient than vitamin E in reducing the negative parameters of cholestasis, the degree of oxidative stress and provided a significantly greater hepatoprotective effect against the liver injury secondary to the acute ligation of the biliary duct.

Worldwide, breast cancer is the most common malignancy accounting for 20-32% of all female cancers. This review summarizes the peer-reviewed, published data pertinent to the hypothesis that increased breast cancer in industrialized countries is related to the increased use of electricity [Stevens, R.G., S. Davis 1996]. That hypothesis specifically proposes that increased exposure to light at night and electromagnetic fields (EMF) reduce melatonin production. Because some studies have shown that melatonin suppresses mammary tumorigenesis in rats and blocks estrogen-induced proliferation of human breast cancer cells in vitro, it is reasoned that decreased melatonin production leads to increased risk of breast cancer. To evaluate this hypothesis, the paper reviews epidemiological data on associations between electricity and breast cancer, and assesses the data on the effects of EMF exposure on melatonin physiology in both laboratory animals and humans. In addition, the results on the effects of melatonin on in vivo carcinogenesis in animals are detailed along with the controlled in vitro studies on melatonin's effects on human breast cancer cell lines. The literature is evaluated for strength of evidence, inter-relationships between various lines of evidence, and gaps in our knowledge. Based on the published data, it is currently unclear if EMF and electric light exposure are significant risk factors for breast cancer, but further study appears warranted. Given the ubiquitous nature of EMF and artificial light exposure along with the high incidence of breast cancer, even a small risk would have a substantial public health impact.

In this paper, we show for the first time, a nyctohemeral rhythm in serum total antioxidant status (TAS) in rats which parallels the 24-H melatonin cycle. Both TAS and melatonin in rat serum exhibited 24 hr variations with nocturnal peak values at 05.00 hr and low basal values during the day. When rats were maintained under light exposure (>500 lux) from 20.00 h to 05.00 hr, serum TAS was significantly reduced when compared with control rat killed in darkness. Moreover, when animals were maintained under continuous light exposure for 5 days and killed at 05.00 hr, serum TAS exhibited an additional decrease when compared with control rats. Since administering exogenous melatonin also increased TAS in the rat serum, results suggest that melatonin may be relevant in terms of participating in the antioxidative capacity of the rat serum.

In this paper, we summarize the results of in vitro studies showing that physiological concentrations of melatonin inhibit the norepinephrine-induced activation of prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) and cyclic AMP production in rat medial basal hypothalamus (MBH). Interestingly, a concentration of melatonin as low as 1 nM, which is roughly equivalent to the nocturnal serum physiological concentration of the hormone in the rat, significantly inhibit PGE 2 and cyclic AMP production in the MBH. The suppressive effect of melatonin may be mediated by an inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity, since the stimulatory effect of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a spontaneous generator of NO, was not prevented by melatonin. Melatonin also inhibited NOS activity in rat MBH in a dose-dependent manner. The results suggest the existence of a new or an ancillary means by which melatonin may regulate the physiology of the hypothalamus-pituitary unit.

Earlier studies on the immunoregulatory role of the pineal gland and melatonin revealed that melatonin counteracts immunosuppression and thymus atrophy induced by stress or corticosteroid treatment. Moreover, melatonin protects mice injected with encephalitogenic viruses, synergizes with interleukin-2 (IL-2) in cancer immunotherapy and rescues hematopoiesis from cancer chemotherapy toxicity. In regard to the mechanism of action, melatonin seems to act directly on CD4+ lymphocytes which release opioid peptides with immunoenhancing properties along with other cytokines. Because of these findings, we investigated the role of the pineal gland and melatonin in autoimmune diabetes mellitus type I using, as an experimental model, female non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Mice were pinealectomized or treated chronically with melatonin (injected subcutaneously or administered via drinking water). This paper shows that neonatal pinealectomy accelerates the development of the disease in female NOD mice while exogenous melatonin protects the animals. This in spite of the fact that melatonin increased the production of insulin autoantibodies (IAA). We conclude that the pineal gland and melatonin influence the development of autoimmune diabetes although the mechanism of action that needs further investigation.

In vitro preparations of rat pinealocytes are widely used for biochemical analyses of signal transduction processes. This paper deals with morphological and immunocytochemical features of such preparations. Special attention was paid to the problems of whether pinealocytes represent a heterogeneous cell population and how such heterogeneity may develop during ontogeny. The investigations were performed with cells which were obtained from the pineal organ of one-week- and two-month-old rats, attached to synthetic peptide-coated coverslips or tissue culture chamber slides, and maintained under in vitro conditions overnight. The attached cells were then fixed with paraformaldehyde. These preparations yielded monolayers of spherical cells of different sizes; most cells were isolated, but some of them were aggregated and formed small clusters. On the average, the cells from the one-week-old animals were smaller than the cells from the two-month-old animals. Immunocytochemical demonstration of S-antigen, a pinealocyte-specific marker, showed that the majority of the cells from two-month-old animals were intensely or moderately labelled. Pinealocytes from one-week-old animals were less S-antigen immunoreactive. Only very few cells (less than 1/1000 displayed glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-immunoreactivity. Planimetric investigations of the cell size and semiquantitative densitometric investigations of the intensity of the S-antigen immunoreaction revealed that (i) pinealocytes kept in vitro form a heterogeneous cell population, and that (ii) this heterogeneity increased during postnatal development from one-week-old to two-month-old animals. Two groups of pinealocytes can be distinguished based on their developmental fate: pinealocytes of one group grow dramatically, but show only a moderate increase in S-antigen immunoreactivity, and pinealocytes of the other group retain their size, but display a distinct increment in S-antigen immunoreactivity.

This paper represents an essential aspect of recent investigations into the functional and clinical implications of insulin-melatonin interrelationships. The aim of the study was to analyze whether melatonin reduces insulin secretion in an animal in a manner comparable to the pattern observed in previous in vitro experiments; to this end, we used two models: Wistar and type 2-diabetic Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats. Thirty-two Wistar and 32 GK rats were divided into two subgroups of 16 rats each; each subgroup was treated either with or without melatonin. The daily administration of melatonin, starting in 8-wk-old rats, was adjusted to 2.5 mg/kg body weight. Melatonin was given daily during the dark period for 12 hr. After 9 wk of treatment, the rats were sacrificed in the middle of the dark period. Melatonin administration strongly enhanced the plasma melatonin level and diminished the expression of pancreatic melatonin receptor-mRNA, whereas the expression of pineal AA-NAT and HIOMT was unchanged. Furthermore, the experiments showed in agreement with recent in vitro results of pancreatic islets that plasma insulin levels were diminished after melatonin treatment. However, the pineal insulin receptor expression was increased after melatonin administration. The pancreatic expression of glucagon, GLUT2, and glucokinase was decreased in GK rats, whereas the glucose levels, as well as the parameters of glucose sensing, GLUT2-mRNA, and glucokinase-mRNA, were unchanged after melatonin administration in both Wistar and GK rats. In summary, the results show that melatonin administration decreases plasma insulin levels in vivo and, furthermore, that an insulin-melatonin antagonism exists.

A number of in vitro effects of melatonin on human platelets were revealed in previous studies. In order to examine whether high affinity binding sites for [3H]-melatonin were present in membrane preparations of human platelets, a rapid filtration procedure through Whatman GFB paper was employed. Maximal melatonin binding was attained within 3 hr at 0 degree C. Scatchard analysis indicated a single population of binding sites with a dissociation constant (Kd) = 4.1 +/- 0.5 nM and maximal number of binding sites (Bmax) = 24.2 +/- 1.9 fmol/mg protein (mean +/- SEM of five experiments). When various indole analogs were tested for their ability to inhibit [3H]-melatonin binding, the following Ki (nM) were obtained: 6-chloromelatonin (11.4), 2-iodomelatonin (22.0), melatonin (24.7), 5-methoxytryptophol (49.9), N-acetylserotonin (68.9), 6-hydroxymelatonin (78.2), 5-methoxytryptamine (184). Serotonin was a potent inhibitor of [3H]-melatonin binding with a Ki = 20.6 nM. Except for 2-methylserotonin and alpha-methylserotonin, a number of serotonin agonists and antagonists tested did not affect melatonin binding to platelet membranes. Binding experiments carried out at either 0800 or 2000 did not reveal time-dependent differences in Kd or Bmax. The results suggest that high affinity melatonin acceptors are present in human platelets.

Endothelial cells produce NO by activation of constitutive nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and transcription of inducible NOS (iNOS). We have previously shown that melatonin, in the nanomolar range, inhibits activation of constitutive NOS, and in the present paper, we evaluated whether it could interfere with the expression of iNOS, which is activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of gram-negative bacteria cell walls. Primary cultures of rat endothelial cells were loaded with fluorescent probe for NO detection. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) translocation in endothelial cells elicited by LPS was measured by electromobility shift assay, and the vasodilation of aortic rings was accessed by recording isometric contraction. Melatonin in a micromolar but not in a nanomolar range inhibits the NO production induced by LPS. This effect is not dependent on the activation of G protein-coupled melatonin receptors. The nuclear NF-kappaB translocation is a process necessary for iNOS transcription, and melatonin also inhibits its translocation. LPS induced vasodilation only in endothelium-intact aortic rings, and melatonin (10 mum) inhibits the vasodilation. Here, we show that concentrations compatible with nocturnal melatonin surge (nm) did not interfere with the activity of iNOS. Considering that micromolar melatonin concentrations could be locally achieved through production by activated immune competent cells, extra-pineal melatonin could have a protective effect against tissue injury. We propose that melatonin blocked the LPS-induced vasodilation by inhibiting the NF-kappaB pathway. Finally, we propose that the effect of melatonin on vascular reactivity is one of the mechanisms that underlies the protective effect of this indolamine against LPS.

In this paper, we have investigated the influence of melatonin on the histology and porphyrin content of the Syrian hamster Harderian glands. Daily afternoon injections of 25 micrograms of melatonin to female hamsters for 12 weeks resulted in the discontinuity of estrous cyclicity, a marked decrease in the Harderian gland intraluminal area occupied by porphyrins, and in a significant rise in the number of Type II cells. A similar decrease in porphyrins was observed after 8 weeks of ovariectomy. However, if the melatonin injections were given for only 8 weeks (without inducing gonadal atrophy), no changes were observed in the area occupied by intraluminal porphyrins, suggesting that the effects of melatonin in female Syrian hamsters might be associated with the subsequent gonadal atrophy. Castration of male hamsters induced a significant increase in porphyrins and a clear drop in the number of Type II cells. These changes were totally prevented when melatonin was administered daily from the day of castration. Our results suggest that melatonin, at least in male Syrian hamsters, plays a role in Harderian metabolism, acting directly on the Harderian secretory cells or indirectly through pituitary hormones.

Control of the acute phase of Trypanosoma cruzi infection is critically dependent on cytokine-mediated macrophage activation to intracellular killing, natural killer (NK) cells, CD4(+) T cells, CD8(+) T cells and B cells. Cell-mediated immunity in T. cruzi infection is also modulated by cytokines, but in addition to parasite-specific responses, autoimmunity can be also triggered. Importantly, cytokines may also play a role in the cell-mediated immunity of infected subjects. Here we studied the role of cytokines in the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity during the acute phase of T. cruzi infection in Wistar rats. Melatonin is an effective regulator of the immune system. Macrophages and T lymphocytes, which have melatonin receptors, are target cells for the immunomodulatory function of melatonin. In this paper melatonin was orally given via two protocols: prior to and concomitant with infection. Both treatments were highly effective against T. cruzi with enhanced action for the concomitant treatment. The data suggest an up-regulation of the TH-1 immune response as all analyzed parameters, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, transforming growth factor-beta1 and splenocyte proliferation, displayed reduced levels as compared with the untreated counterparts. However, the direct effects of melatonin on immune cells have not been fully investigated during T. cruzi infection. We conclude that in light of the current results, melatonin exerted important therapeutic benefits through its immune regulatory effects.

Melatonin, an indole mainly synthesized in the pineal gland during the dark phase, plays a role as an endogenous antioxidant and an anticancer agent in many tumors. Melatonin, at pharmacological concentrations, inhibits cell growth and induces neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer cells. Classically it has been considered that melatonin enters freely into most of cells by passive diffusion through the cell membrane; however, there are few studies examining how melatonin is taken up by cancer cells. The aim of the present paper was to study the uptake of melatonin into human androgen-dependent LNCaP and androgen-independent PC-3 prostate cancer cells. Increased concentrations of melatonin induced a rapid and transitory rise in intracellular melatonin content in both cell types, with a peak of maximal content at 6 hr after melatonin addition, following a rhythmic uptake; melatonin was found in both cytoplasm and nuclear fractions. Inhibition of protein or RNA synthesis partially blocked melatonin uptake in both cell lines. Interestingly, melatonin pulse incubation led to a higher uptake after four cycles of pulse incubation. Neither extracellular Ca(2+)/K(+) alterations nor the presence of bovine serum albumin or charcoal-stripped serum modified the profile of melatonin uptake. On the contrary, chemical binding of melatonin to BSA totally prevented melatonin from entering into cells. The present data support the hypothesis that a facilitated diffusion or an active process rather than simple passive diffusion through the cell membrane is the major mechanism in melatonin uptake by prostate cancer cells and it accounts for its intracellular concentration (350 nM-3.3 microM), which is related to its anti-tumor actions.

Melatonin is a well-known animal substance, which has recently been detected in plant tissues. However, there are only a few studies concerning its possible physiological role in plants. In this paper, we investigate the possible effect of melatonin on the regeneration of lateral and adventious roots in etiolated hypocotyls of Lupinus albus L. compared with the effect of indole-3-acetic acid. We performed this study by measuring both molecules in roots. Six-day-old derooted lupin hypocotyls immersed in several melatonin or indole-3-acetic acid concentrations were used to induce roots. A macro- and microscopic study of the histological origin of the adventitious and lateral roots was made, while melatonin and indole-3-acetic acid in the roots were quantified using liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The data show that both melatonin and indole-3-acetic acid induced the appearance of root primordia from pericicle cells, modifying the pattern of distribution of adventitious or lateral roots, the time-course, the number and length of adventitious roots, and the number of lateral roots. Melatonin and indole-3-acetic acid were detected and quantified in lupin primary roots, where both molecules were present in similar concentrations. The physiological effect of exogenous melatonin as root promoter was demonstrated, its action being similar to that of indole-3-acetic acid.

A large number of data show that melatonin has immunomodulatory properties and is produced by immunocompetent cells; also, some evidence suggests a 'feedback' of the activated immune system on the pineal gland. In this paper, we studied immune-pineal interactions in colostrum obtained from healthy puerperae and mothers with mastitis taking into account that, (a) melatonin levels in milk reflects pineal activity and (b) colostrum quiescent mononuclear and polymorphonuclear phagocytes from healthy mothers in culture are adequate for evaluating the ability of immunocompetent cells to produce melatonin. Here we compared the diurnal and nocturnal melatonin levels in colostrum from healthy puerperae and mothers with mastitis; this is a unique noninvasive model for determining pineal activity in the proinflammatory phase of a defense response. In addition, we determined the 'in vitro' production of melatonin by colostrum immunocompetent cells stimulated by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli or zymosan. Suppression of nocturnal melatonin rise in mothers with mastitis was highly correlated with increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) secretion. This result, interpreted taking into account the presence of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B in pineal gland, suggest that the proinflammatory cytokine can inhibit nocturnal pineal melatonin production. On the other hand, stimulated, but not quiescent, immunocompetent cells secreted in the colostrum produced melatonin in vitro. In addition, this production ceases after bacteria killing. These results suggest that during the response to an injury the production of melatonin can be transiently shifted from an endocrine (pineal) to a paracrine (immunocompetent cells) source.

The effects of melatonin in mammalian cells are exerted via specific receptors or are related to its free radical scavenging activity. It has previously been reported that melatonin inhibits insulin secretion in the pancreatic islets of the rat and in rat insulinoma INS1 cells via Gi-protein-coupled MT1 receptors and the cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate pathway. However, the inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) pathway is involved in the insulin secretory response as well, and the melatonin signal may play a part in its regulation. This paper addresses the involvement of the second messengers IP3 and intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) in the signalling cascade of melatonin in the rat insulinoma INS1 cell, a model for the pancreatic beta-cell. For this purpose melatonin at concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 nmol/L, carbachol and the nonselective melatonin receptor antagonist luzindole were used to stimulate INS1 cell batches, followed by an IP3-mass assay and Ca2+ imaging. Molecular biological studies relating to the mRNA of IP3 receptor (IP3R) subtypes and their relative abundance in INS1 cells showed expression of IP3R-1, IP3R-2 and IP3R-3 mRNA. In conclusion, we found that in rat insulinoma INS1 cells there is a dose-dependent stimulation of IP3 release by melatonin, which is accompanied by a likewise transient increase in [Ca2+]i concentrations. The melatonin effect observed mimics carbachol action. It can be abolished by 30 micromol/L luzindole and is sustained in Ca2+-free medium, suggesting a mechanism that includes the depletion of Ca2+ from intracellular stores.

Melatonin is a hormone involved in neuroendocrine responses; its plasma concentrations display a circadian pattern which is modified by stress. Studies for determining the effects of stressors on melatonin levels in laboratory animals present the difficulty that the procedures for blood sampling are by themselves potential stressors capable of influencing the levels of the hormone measured. A simple non-stressful method for measuring urinary excretion of melatonin has been consequently developed. The method is applicable to single undisturbed mice kept in conventional cages, and consists of urine collection on chromatographic paper followed by extraction and melatonin assay by radioimmunoassay. The use of this method with BD2F1 mice indicates nocturnal excretion of melatonin significantly higher than during the day; nighttime melatonin levels were shown to be suppressed by constant illumination. A significant increase in nocturnal melatonin excretion was caused by the application of rotational stress applied as a mild experimental stressor.

Anton-Tay F, Martinez I, Tovar R, Benitez-King G. Modulation of the subcellular distribution of calmodulin by melatonin in MDCK cells. J. Pineal Res. 1998; 24:35–42. © Munksgaard, Copenhagen Abstract In this paper we describe the interaction of melatonin with calmodulin in MDCK cells. The double staining immunofluorescent method showed that calmodulin in control MDCK cells appeared as fluorescent spots at the cell periphery. In contrast, MDCK cells cultured with 10--9 M melatonin for 6, 12, 24 hr or for 4 days showed that calmodulin fluorescent spots were distributed throughout the cytoplasm as well as in the nucleus. These calmodulin rearrangements were reversed 6 hr after melatonin withdrawal. Moreover, calmodulin radioimmunoassay showed that in 10--9 M melatonin-treated cells, membrane-bound calmodulin content was increased by 78% whereas cytosolic calmodulin decreased by 60%. Simultaneous labeling of MDCK cells with specific antibodies against calmodulin and melatonin showed that not only does the indole enter the cell, but that it has the same subcellular distribution as calmodulin. Besides the early responses induced by the melatonin antagonism to calmodulin, the results suggest that the indole may also induce long-term cellular responses by changing calmodulin concentrations in specific cellular compartments.

This paper reviews the evidence that supports the hypothesis of the existence of specific binding sites for melatonin on immune cells. These binding sites have been described in human blood lymphocytes and granulocytes, and thymus, spleen, and bursa of Fabricius from different rodents and birds. The dissociation constant values of these binding sites are in the 0.1-1 nM range, suggesting that melatonin may play a physiological role in lymphocyte regulation. Moreover, melatonin binding sites appear to be modulated by guanine nucleotides. Therefore, in addition to other mechanisms described for the regulation of immune function by melatonin, a direct mechanism of regulation can be involved via binding of melatonin by immunocompetent cells.

Guerrero JM, Reiter RJ, Poeggeler B, Chen L-D, Tan D-X. Elevation of cyclic GMP levels in the rat pineal gland induced by nitric oxide. J Pineal Res. 1994:16:210–214. Abstract The present paper reports that nitric oxide (NO) released by sodium nitroprusside (SNP) is a potent activator of rat pineal cyclic GMP production without affecting cyclic AMP synthesis. Other drugs such as isoproterenol, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and peptide histidine isoleucine were ineffective in stimulating cyclic GMP production, but activated cyclic AMP production. However, L-arginine, the physiological precursor of NO, did not activate either cyclic GMP or NO synthesis. Because L-arginine failed to activate cyclic GMP production, results suggest that NO is not produced in the pineal gland, but behaves as a potent regulator of this cyclic nucleotide.

The molecular mechanism underlying the role of calcium influx in the regulation of retinal serotonin N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activity was studied in vivo in chickens. Systemic administration of organic antagonists of voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCC), i.e., nimodipine and nifedipine, resulted in a marked suppression of the nocturnal increase of NAT activity in chicken retina. In contrast, NAT activity stimulated by nonhydrolysable analogs of cyclic AMP (dibutyryl-cyclic AMP and 8-bromo-cyclic AMP), forskolin, a direct activator of adenylate cyclase, and by phosphodiesterase inhibitors (aminophylline and 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine), was not significantly affected by various tested VSCC antagonists. The inhibitory effect of nimodipine on the dark-dependent increase in NAT activity of chicken retina was abolished by Bay K 8644, a selective VSCC agonist. The results presented in this paper indicate an important role of calcium influx through L-type of VSCC in the induction of NAT activity in chicken retina, and suggest that a requirement of calcium ions in the process of NAT induction in the retina may be primarily at the level of cyclic AMP production.

Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is a lytic mechanism in which a specific antibody acts cooperatively with leukocytic effector cells to induce target cell lysis. In this paper, the effect of exogenous melatonin on ADCC was examined. It was found that two evening intravenous injections of melatonin (1 mg/kg b.w.) was sufficient to enhance the capacity of splenocytes to mediate ADCC. This augmented activity returned to normal levels by day 6. Moreover, the opioid antagonist, naloxone, was unable to inhibit the ADCC enhancement, suggesting that melatonin did not operate through a naloxone-sensitive opiatergic mechanism. These results further support the modulatory action of melatonin on immune responses.

EGTA, a nonspecific ion chelator, showed very good potential for preventing the loss of serotonin N-acetyl transferase activity (arylamine: acetyl-CoA:N-acetyltransferase, EC 2.3.1.5.) (SNAT) from rat and chicken pineal glands during preincubation at 37 degrees C before substrate addition. SNAT activity was higher than that of the controls when EGTA was present in the homogenization buffer due to the prevention of the loss of activity probably not only during the preincubation period but also during incubation with its substrates. This characteristic of EGTA suggests that its use is suitable in the improved SNAT assay described in this paper since higher SNAT activities were found in both rat and chicken pineal glands than the activities recorded with the usual methods.

Melatonin is metabolised by hydroxylation at the 6 position and to a variable extent by demethylation. Both metabolites so formed are excreted as sulphate and, to a lesser extent, glucuronide conjugates. To authenticate these metabolites which we had earlier isolated from urine, we wished to have synthetic samples. Since we also required them as standards we needed them as powders. A review of the literature showed that there were only two published methods, of which only one gave rise to 6-sulphatoxy-melatonin (SaMT) as a solid. The other metabolite, N-acetyl-serotonin-sulphate (SNAS), has not been previously made, and we here describe some of its chemical properties. Our method modifies a published method taking into account the results given in a recent paper describing the sulphation of the thyroid hormones, T3 and T4. Hydroxy-melatonin is thus reacted with a complex formed from dimethylformamide and chlorosulphonic acid. The reaction is of interest since it is rapid, easy, and produces pure powdered material in excellent yield.

The presence of type-II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) activity in rat pineal gland has been previously described. In the present paper, 5'-D activity, N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activity, and melatonin content were measured in the same rat pineal. Each of these constituents exhibits a nocturnal increase with peak values at 0100 h for melatonin (1.20 +/- 0.12 ng/gland) and at 0300 h for both 5'-D (39.5 +/- 11.9 fmol/gland/h) and NAT (8.38 +/- 1.04 nmol/gland/h) activities. In vivo treatment with iopanoic acid (IOP) completely prevented the nocturnal increase in 5'-D activity (14.1 +/- 2.6 fmol/gland/h at 0300 h) with no modification in either the NAT activity or melatonin content. Thyroidectomy greatly enhanced the 5'-D activity during the dark period (102.9 +/- 10.2 vs. 31.6 +/- 4.2 fmol/gland/h), reaching a peak at 0200 h; thyroidectomy, however, did not affect daytime pineal 5'-D activity (3.11 +/- 0.78 vs. 2.5 + 0.92 fmol/gland/h). Treatment of rats with IOP acid completely inhibited the pineal 5'-D activity in both control (7.86 +/- 0.88 fmol/gland/h) and thyroidectomized animals (2.24 +/- 1.10 fmol/gland/h) with no change in the melatonin content of the gland (1.21 +/- 0.32 vs. 0.99 +/- 0.18 ng/gland).