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A fully kinetic particle-in-cell model combined with a nonhomogeneous interface immersed finite element field solver is presented for simulations of the plasma charging at the lunar terminator. This model explicitly includes the lunar regolith layer and the bedrock in the simulation domain, taking into account of regolith layer thickness and permittivity, and is capable of resolving a nontrivial surface terrain or spacecraft configuration. Simulations are presented to study surface charging and lunar outpost charging at the lunar terminator region. The results suggest that substantial differential charging can develop, even under a very moderate plasma charging environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents fully kinetic particle simulations of plasma charging at lunar craters with the presence of lunar lander modules using the recently developed Parallel Immersed-Finite-Element Particle-in-Cell (PIFE-PIC) code. The computation model explicitly includes the lunar regolith layer on top of the lunar bedrock, taking into account the regolith layer thickness and permittivity as well as the lunar lander module in the simulation domain, resolving a nontrivial surface terrain or lunar lander configuration. Simulations were carried out to study the lunar surface and lunar lander module charging near craters at the lunar terminator region under mean and severe plasma environments. The lunar module's position is also investigated to see its effect on the plasma charging relative to the craters. Differential surface charging was clearly resolved by the simulations. For the charging of a lunar lander module made of conducting materials, the results show a near-uniform potential close to that of its surrounding environment and moderate levels of local electric fields. Additionally, the risks associated with charging and discharging increase significantly under a more severe plasma charging environment as shown in the severe plasma environment cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]