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The article discusses the importance of reproducibility in academic research, particularly in the field of structural engineering. It acknowledges the challenges in achieving reproducibility, such as data storage and computing requirements, as well as proprietary issues. The authors argue for the development of a reproducibility policy in the Journal of Structural Engineering and the Journal of Bridge Engineering, taking into account the nature and culture of research in these subdisciplines. They propose a classification system that emphasizes the availability of data and metadata, and encourage authors to go beyond data availability by making models and other materials accessible. To incentivize research and data availability, the journals will provide a visible recognition badge for papers with open data/models/codes and may consider special recognition for these papers. The authors also outline the review process for data-verified papers, which involves three associate editors verifying the availability and representativeness of the data. [Extracted from the article]

This paper introduces a topology optimization approach based on the virtual element method (VEM), incorporating uncertainties. The objective of this optimization process is to design an optimal material layout for problems governed by linear elasticity equations to minimize the volume while satisfying probabilistic compliance constraints. The VEM is used to solve the boundary value problem in reliability-based topology optimization (RBTO). In the comparison between the VEM and the standard finite element method (FEM), a key difference emerges in the absence of explicitly defined shape functions tied to discrete degrees of freedom in VEM. Unlike FEM, VEM directly constructs the discrete bilinear form and load linear form without the need for computing shape function derivatives within the elements. This flexibility accommodates meshes with intricate geometries and arbitrarily shaped elements. The paper discusses the computational efficiency of VEM RBTO and explores the geometric impact of tessellations on converged topologies, demonstrating reduced susceptibility to checkerboard patterns compared to conventional quadrilateral elements. Additionally, the single-loop approach is examined, showcasing comparable accuracy to the first-order/second-order reliability methods (FORM/SORM) of RBTO using VEM. Numerical results for several problems that demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tensegrity structures, which consist of tension cables and compression rods, are widely used in various fields. It is particularly important to find the tensegrity with definite geometric configuration for the following research and application. This paper presents a traversal topology-finding method for tensegrity structures based on dynamic programming algorithm and ground structure method. After the designer has given the cable topology, the dynamic programming is adopted to realize the traversal selection of the rod. In order to reduce the traversal space and realize the constraint of rod length type, the rod is classified according to length. Compared with existing topology-finding methods, the algorithm can not only output all feasible topologies but also incorporate structural constraints, such as rod length type and prestressed stability, into the calculation process. Four tensegrity numerical examples illustrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the topology-finding method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shake-table tests of a full-scale 3-story reinforced concrete frame building were performed at the E-Defense facility (Miki City, Japan) as part of the Tokyo Metropolitan Resilience Project. Building data were collected before and after each shake-table experiment, using light detection and ranging (lidar) scanning technology. Three-dimensional point clouds were generated and processed to investigate the damage features that can be extracted, which are important for postdisaster structural assessment purposes. To this end, this paper discusses aspects pertaining to lidar data processing and registration, calculation of residual displacements and interstory drifts, and concrete cracking and spalling identification and measurement. Most notably, this paper deals with very large data sets, processed to extract structural response information at both global and local scales. Limited multiscale work has been done in the past, and the different sets of challenges that arise have typically been addressed separately. Evidently, this gap needs to be filled before lidar can be effectively used in the field for structural assessment applications. A series of examples in which lidar data are processed and analyzed to assess specific structural components is illustrated, showing that point cloud data can indeed be processed to obtain measurements of global residual drifts or of the extent of visible damage (e.g., crack width and spalling). Although preliminary in nature, the results presented in this paper indicate that collecting postdisaster data using terrestrial lidar scanners has the potential to contribute improving how buildings are assessed in the aftermath of seismic events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent amendments to design ground snow load requirements in current US standards have reduced the size of case-study regions by 91% from what they were in previous standards, primarily in western states. This reduction is made possible through the development of highly accurate regional generalized additive models (RGAMs), stitched together with a novel smoothing scheme implemented in the R software package remap, to produce the continental-scale maps of reliability-targeted design ground snow loads available in current standards. This approach allows for better characterizations of the changing relationship between temperature, elevation, and ground snow loads across the conterminous US (CONUS). RGAMs are shown to have 10% or better improvement in mean absolute mapping error in two independently created data sets when compared with traditional mapping techniques. Structures must be able to withstand environmental stresses without collapsing, including snow. Design ground snow loads are estimated using snow measurements taken at weather stations throughout the US. Mapping techniques allow design ground snow loads to be estimated at regions between weather stations. This paper describes a regional approach for mapping design ground snow loads in CONUS and demonstrates the improved accuracy of the approach, relative to previous methods, on two independently created national data sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large infrastructure projects can efficiently use large diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement in reinforced concrete elements. In earthquake-prone zones, critical regions of these elements must be detailed for ductility and hysteretic energy dissipation. Longitudinal bars in these regions are expected to sustain large-amplitude strain cyclic reversals before bar fracture occurs, in a mode of failure defining the collapse prevention limit state. To date, no successful large strain-amplitude cyclic loading testing has been reported on large-diameter reinforcing bars to observe the large-strain amplitude fatigue life of such bars, which often involves plastic bar buckling. This paper describes a test program designed to determine the plastic buckling/straightening fatigue life of ASTM A706 Grade 60 No. 18 bars (Ø57 mm) reinforcing bars subjected to cycles of reversed plastic strains. The design and implementation of the loading apparatus, critical for the gripping of the bars, the metallurgical characterization of the bars, and several key test results are discussed in the paper. Finally, the paper discusses a general unidimensional fatigue damage index precursor to bar fracture following a few plastic buckling and straightening cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper puts forward an indirect bridge monitoring method using Mel-frequency cepstral analysis of inverse-filtered drive-by acceleration signals collected through smartphones. Crowdsensing-based approaches using data collected by smart cars and smartphones opened a new chapter in bridge monitoring by reducing the costs and increasing the efficiency of the bridge monitoring process. However, the major challenge of the dominancy of the operational effects in the recorded drive-by vibrations overshadows the bridge monitoring objective. This paper proposes an inverse filtering-based monitoring approach to suppress operational effects. The inverse-filtered spectrum is later employed in a Mel-frequency cepstral analysis, leading to the calculation of the abnormality index, which is then used to detect the change in the bridge state. The performance of the proposed method in suppressing operational effects is assessed through a series of laboratory and real-life experiments. Afterward, the damage detection capability of the method is investigated for two damage levels at different locations along the bridge, modeled in a laboratory environment. The results provide evidence for the capability of the proposed method in drive-by damage detection of bridges. Moreover, using the smartphone as the data acquisition device paves the path toward the implementation of the method for crowdsensing-based bridge monitoring in future smart cities, although more operational factors such as passenger interactions and resulting smartphone motions need to be considered in future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents experimental and numerical studies on the local stability and compression resistances of laser-welded stainless-steel T-section stub columns. A testing program was first conducted, including material coupon tests, residual stress measurements, and 20 stub column tests. The testing program was supplemented by a numerical modeling program, in which finite-element models were developed and validated against the test results. The finite-element models were afterward used to perform parametric studies to obtain additional numerical data. The test and numerical data were adopted to evaluate the main design rules in the American and European standards and the continuous strength method. The evaluation results indicate that the American and European standards yield conservative resistance predictions, especially for nonslender T-sections, owing to no consideration of material strain hardening, while the continuous strength method is shown to provide greatly improved design accuracy and consistency over the American and European standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the experimental results of a study investigating the behavior of bolted glued-laminated (glulam) timber brace connections with slotted-in steel plates under monotonic and cyclic loading. A total of 12 brace specimens with one or two slotted-in steel plates and two different bolt sizes were studied with the aim to determine the ductility of the connections and brace assemblies. The use of self-tapping screws as perpendicular-to-grain reinforcement to prevent splitting and enhance brace ductility was also investigated. The results of the study showed that both connections in a brace can experience significant plastic deformations if the connections exhibit a postyield hardening response. In braces with connections that exhibited postyield softening, plastic deformations were limited to one of the brace connections, resulting in lower brace ductility ratios. The use of self-tapping screws was found to be effective at preventing splitting and increasing the connection yield and ultimate strengths, while also increasing the brace ductility when compared with an identical connection without reinforcement tested under cyclic loading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant advancements have been made in the area of composite structures. Aligned with an innovative design, the motivation behind this research is, first, to make efficient use of timber as an environmentally friendly material and, second, to employ steel alongside timber effectively to prevent buckling of the steel. This research aims to bridge this knowledge gap by exploring the integration of steel, carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP), and timber. The objective is to create innovative composite column structures that leverage the unique properties of each material to enhance structural performance and efficiency. The authors conducted tests on a set of 24 columns under compression conditions. The results of the structural tests demonstrated significant compression capacities relative to their mass, highlighting the significant advantages of material synergy within these elements. The study thoroughly quantifies these benefits, shedding light on the potentially transformative impact of these innovative composite columns in the field of structural engineering. A significant finding was the influence of the timber section's geometry on preventing column buckling. Furthermore, the positioning of steel within the sandwich columns played a vital role, with steel elements having a greater area with timber exhibiting enhanced structural performance and reduced likelihood of debonding. This paper introduces a new parameter, the inelastic transition area denoted as INT±70% peak , which characterizes the smoothness or abruptness of the transition once the inelastic region begins and the graph descends. This parameter bears significance in risk analysis for structures susceptible to progressive failure. All specimens displaying substantial energy absorption featured larger timber sections, highlighting the pivotal role of timber in absorbing higher levels of energy during structural loading. The findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge on composite materials and their applications in modern construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present an unscented Kalman filter (UKF) for fusion of information from an accelerometer, global navigation satellite system (GNSS) instrumentation, and rotational sensor recordings of structural motion. Seismic and structural motions do not only include translations, but further incorporate torsion and twisting of the ground and/or structural components. Accelerometer and GNSS positions are known to be prone to errors introduced by rotation, such as (1) gravitational leakage, (2) misorientation, and (3) antenna pole tilt. In alleviating such effects, we propose fusion of information from six component (6C) data—3C translation and 3C rotation—and demonstrate its applicability for motion tracking on a flexible pedestrian bridge. To simulate a variety of load effects, the bridge was subjected to various sources of excitation such as hammer impulses, jumping, twisting, and running, as well as a combination thereof named the "artificial coupled forcing." The rotation errors of both the accelerometer and GNSS-estimated positions are corrected via a UKF-based fusion. We further identify the modal properties of the monitored bridge, excited by the different excitation sources, using a covariance driven stochastic subspace identification. The twisting of the bridge is shown to be a primary source of rotation errors. These errors ought to be corrected because their order of magnitude can be as large as the actual signal in the case of GNSS positions and up to 10% for accelerometer sensors. We compare the proposed UKF-based fusion for 6C motion tracking against a simplified linear Kalman filter and demonstrate the potential of the former for real-time, broadband, rotation-free displacement, velocity, and rotations tracking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the structural performance of a new type of lightweight composite cold-formed steel and timber (CFST) flooring system has been investigated by conducting four-point bending tests on 13 specimens. A bare cold-formed steel system without timber sheathing was also tested to provide a benchmark response to which the strength and stiffness of the composite system were compared. This paper presents key findings on the flooring system's structural behavior and performance parameters, such as ultimate bending capacity, load-deflection response, load-slip response, and failure modes, by categorizing 13 specimens into four subgroups based on shear connector types and spacings. In the proposed composite CFST flooring system, 45-mm thick structural plywood panels were connected to the 2.4-mm thick cold-formed steel C-section joist using self-drilling screws, coach screws, and nuts and bolts. The performance of different types of shear connectors on the composite action is experimentally investigated and compared with the theoretical plastic section. Furthermore, the load-carrying capacity, effective bending stiffness, and deflection of composite CFST beams were computed theoretically using elastic theory and compared to experimental results, which showed good agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thick rubber bearings (TRBs) have been proven to be effective in mitigating horizontal shaking induced by earthquakes as well as railway-induced vertical vibration. During earthquake excitations, TRBs might be subjected to tension, which should be carefully assessed during design. This paper presents experimental and numerical studies on the behavior of TRBs under tensile loading. Four full-scale thick natural rubber bearing (TNRB) and lead thick rubber bearing (LTRB) specimens were designed and tested under tension, with and without lateral offset. The test results showed that increasing the applied lateral offset decreased the tensile stress and stiffness of the TNRBs, while the LTRBs did not exhibit any reduction. In addition, the test results were compared with design specifications in current codes for conventional rubber bearings. Finally, finite element (FE) models of TRBs were built and validated against the results of uniaxial and offset tensile experiments, and the cavitation of rubber was modeled via a two-phase model. To further estimate the damage due to previous tensile loading, damage variables under cyclic tensile loading were also taken into account. The experimental and numerical results showed that the lead core only slightly increased the initial tensile stiffness of the bearing under uniaxial testing, while it had a significant influence on the tensile properties of the LTRBs under offset displacement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tall building design process typically goes through a time-consuming iterative procedure to ensure the cost efficiency of the proposed structural system, especially in the conceptual design stage where the layout is designed. Despite that, this procedure does not guarantee to yield an optimal layout. Consequently, an automated layout optimization procedure will result in a more economical and sustainable design. This paper presents a novel multiobjective lateral load resisting system (LLRS) (i.e., shear walls) layout optimization framework provided for dynamically sensitive tall buildings subjected to a wind load time history. The developed framework relies on an artificial neural network (ANN) surrogate model for constraints and objective function evaluation to reduce the computational time of the optimization process. The adopted surrogate model is built based on an automated finite element models-generated database using MATLAB code via the Open Application Program Interface of the ETABS software. The ANN surrogate model proved its efficiency in capturing complex variations in the structural response with a correlation coefficient that ranges between 90% and 98%. A nongradient optimization algorithm (NSGA-II) is adopted to identify the optimal shear wall layout to resist the applied dynamic wind load. In order to reduce the number of optimal layout solutions on the Pareto front, a pruning algorithm is used to limit the optimal solutions to 24 layouts. This will enable designers to use the direct selection method to choose an appropriate layout that fits the project's objectives. Also, a case study building is presented where the optimized results are analyzed and discussed in the numerical example to verify the effectiveness of the proposed optimization framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the design, modeling, and characterizing tests of an assembled freely pendulum-type active tuned mass damper (AP-ATMD) for structural vibration control, highlighting its unique features such as noncontact force transmission, nonextra stiffness, and damping members. This device can operate passively as a tuned mass damper (TMD) with optimal tuning when environmental disturbances are minimal, or it can engage efficiently in active control when significant disturbances are present. The AP-ATMD mainly consists of a robust suspension system, an arc-shaped mass block with permanent magnets (PMs), and an arc-shaped electromagnetic motor. Notably, both the electromagnetic motor and the mass block have identical curvatures. A laboratory prototype of the AP-ATMD was designed and fabricated for the purpose of characterizing tests. Furthermore, an electromechanical model based on the Bouc–Wen hysteresis loop was developed to accurately characterize the active force behavior generated by the device. The parameters of this model were identified through a series of characterizing tests of the prototype AP-ATMD under harmonic excitations, and subsequently were validated under random excitation. The results confirmed the efficacy of the proposed electromechanical model in precisely capturing the active force behavior across a wide array of operational conditions. Finally, a numerical simulation of a 3-story frame with the AP-ATMD installed was conducted. The outcomes of the simulation highlighted the AP-ATMD's ability to reduce structural responses significantly. Moreover, the system employing the proposed electromechanical model outperformed a linear model, demonstrating a superior reduction in structural response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC) as lateral or U-shaped thin layers to strengthen the shear-deficient normal-strength concrete (NSC) beams is an effective and promising way to increase their stiffness and shear capacity. However, the lack of an accurate analytical model to estimate the shear capacity of UHPC-strengthened beams could be a critical obstacle to its further application. This paper presents a new analytical model for calculating the shear capacity of UHPC-lateral-strengthened beams, which is the first to be based on the simplified modified compression field theory (SMCFT). The model is also distinguished by considering the full compressive and tensile stress–strain curves of UHPC instead of only using their ultimate strengths. By assuming a complete strain transfer at the NSC–UHPC interface and the coincidence of the principal stress and strain axes in the NSC substrate and UHPC layers, the strain compatibility between the two components are included in the shear calculation. The model predictions were validated in two steps, first by using principal strain measurements in the shear span of five beams from digital image correlation (DIC) data to confirm the strain evaluation of the model, and second by reproducing the shear capacities of 12 beams from five experimental campaigns. Results showed a clear agreement between the strains calculated by the analytical model and those measured in experiments. The shear capacities of UHPC-lateral-strengthened beams calculated by the analytical model obtained a very high accuracy and a low variance to replicate experimental results. The model allows evaluation of the contributions of each beam components (NSC substrate, stirrups, and UHPC layers). Results confirmed that the increase in the shear capacity of strengthened beams mainly comes from the high tensile strength of the UHPC and the thickness of the UHPC layer, as well as the improved contribution of the stirrups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mechanical behavior of mortar joints can be described by means of the cohesive interface element in the mesoscale modeling of masonry structures. In this paper, a novel three-dimensional (3D) constitutive model for the cohesive interface element under cyclic loading is presented. The proposed constitutive model is formulated in the damage-plasticity theoretical framework with the following unique features: (1) two smooth hyperbolic yield surfaces, capable of capturing various failure modes of mortar joints; (2) two damage scalars Dt and Dc to characterize the stiffness degradation; (3) two damage functions ξt(Dt) and ξc(Dc) to describe the strength softening; and (4) an unassociated flow rule to capture the dilatancy behavior. The proposed constitutive model is implemented in the general-purpose finite-element package Abaqus using the user subroutine UMAT. The developed model was validated at the masonry-component level using a mortar-jointed specimen under indirect cyclic tensile loading and three masonry couplets under compressive-shear loading, and then at the structural level using two unreinforced masonry walls characterized by two distinct failure modes. The validation results show that the developed constitutive model is capable of modeling mortar joints and masonry structures with good performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an experimental study on the determination of the mechanical behaviors of Grade 8.8 and 10.9 high-strength bolts at elevated temperatures. Strength reduction coefficients are obtained based on test results at temperatures ranging from 20°C to 900°C, for both yield and ultimate stresses. Simplified expressions are presented to identify the strength reduction factors at considered temperatures. At 400°C, the yield and ultimate strengths of bolts decrease by 30%–35% for both grades compared to those in ambient temperature. Yield strengths are 30% and 20% of yield strengths of Grade 8.8 and 10.9 bolts at ambient temperature, respectively, when the temperature exceeds 500°C. The ultimate strength decreases slightly slower than the yield strength at high temperatures. Although the decrease in ultimate strength follows the decrease in yield strength at elevated temperatures, it is slightly slower. About 3%–6% of yield and ultimate strengths at ambient temperature remain for both grades at 700°C. Moreover, a series of expressions are provided to obtain the full range stress–strain curve of high-strength bolts at elevated temperatures. Comprehensive literature studies are taken into consideration to propose a more generalized description of the stress–strain curves. The proposed model can be fully drawn by only using elastic modulus, yield, and ultimate stresses at ambient temperature. It is shown that the proposed model has enough efficiency to describe the general material behavior at elevated temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interstory drift response is one of most important quantities to quickly assess performance and damages in buildings. Nevertheless, direct measurement of interstory drift is difficult and expensive, because a stationary reference is required to attach measurement devices. With the goal of accurate and fast reference-free estimation, this paper proposes a new strategy to determine dynamic interstory drifts using accelerations. In particular, a Tikhonov regularization is adopted in a generalized minimization problem to achieve an efficient and stable finite impulse response (FIR) filter. Furthermore, due to independent clocks in wireless sensors, accurate time synchronization of the records is critical; consequently, a strategy for accurate synchronization is also presented. Finally, the proposed strategy has been deployed on edge devices for onboard real-time interstory drift estimation. The proposed method for dynamic interstory drift estimation is validated, first, by numerical simulation using earthquake records as base excitation of linear and nonlinear buildings, as well as through laboratory shake table experiments. Both numerical and lab test results show good agreement of dynamic interstory drifts between the measured value and estimated results, demonstrating the efficacy of the proposed method to estimate the dynamic displacements of seismically excited structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The durability of profiled metal-faced insulating sandwich panels (MFISPs) in terms of exposure to high temperatures and thermal cycles is critical for their use in civil engineering applications. In this paper, a total of 20 full-scale panels made with two different thicknesses were tested under instantaneous lateral pressure loading at ambient conditions as well as under various combinations of high temperatures, thermal cycles, and lateral pressure. The pressure was applied through a vacuum chamber whereas thermal blankets were used for sustained and cyclic thermal exposure of the panels. Each thermal cycle entailed 24 h of time duration with a temperature range of 20–80°C. The results show a consistent reduction in the initial stiffness, local buckling pressure, and strength of the panels when they were loaded at high temperatures. These reductions were more substantial (up to 24%) under the combined effects of high temperature (80°C), thermal cycles, and pressure loading. The study also shows that the thickness of the foam core can play an important role in controlling the local buckling capacity and strength of the MFISPs. A nonlinear finite-element analysis was also conducted with a relatively good correlation with the test results. The numerical results provide further insights into the structural response and explain certain aspects that could not be obtained from the tests. Given that MFISPs are typically used for roof panels, where the combination of high temperatures and wind load is inevitable at certain regions, the results presented in this work are recommended for consideration in their design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigated the lateral resistant behavior of grid-reinforced steel corrugated shear walls (GR-SCSWs), which are applied to shear walls with large width-to-height ratio. By revealing the resistant mechanism, the stiffness requirement of the subgrid, the wall–frame interaction, and the overall lateral resistance were studied. First, compared with ordinary steel corrugated shear walls, the lateral resistant behavior of GR-SCSWs and the bending moment of the boundary column were analyzed. Second, the threshold stiffness ratio was defined for the subgrid, and design suggestions were proposed to ensure that the infill panel has high and stable in-plane lateral resistance. Finally, the yielding development and shear force distribution in GR-SCSWs were explored, and an improved plate–frame interaction (PFI) model and formulas predicting the lateral resistance curve of GR-SCSWs were established by numerical analysis and theoretical derivations. It was found that, due to the full out-of-plane restraining effect of the subgrid, the GR-SCSW with optimized subpanels can achieve an in-plane shear yielding mechanism. GR-SCSWs can resist lateral loading with an appropriate yield sequence from the infill panel to the subgrid and then to the boundary frame. The modified PFI model proposed fully considered the interaction between the infill grid-reinforced panel and the boundary frame, while the theoretical formulas agreed with the FEA results and can be used to predict the lateral resistant curve and shear force distribution of GR-SCSWs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the results of 1∶25 scale shake table tests evaluating the seismic response of multiblock tower structures (MTSs) conceived as energy storage systems. The tests described here are a part of a comprehensive research campaign involving smaller physical models, computational model validation, and the theoretical background required to compare results across scales. The 6.46-m-high MTSs consisted of over 7,000 concrete blocks stacked vertically without any bonding agent, interacting only by friction and rocking. Three MTSs were tested under two different ground motions. Dynamic digital image correlation (DIC) and low-cost micro electrical mechanical system (MEMS) accelerometers were used for dynamic response measurements. Towers 1 and 3, subjected to repeated strong-intensity earthquake ground motions, collapsed during the third repetition due to the accumulation of residual displacements. Tower 2 was subjected to a single near-fault ground motion representing an extreme event and collapsed during the test. Different collapse mechanisms were identified in the test program. Data collected from individual blocks showed in-plane and out-of-phase block rotation and sliding, which contributed to the system's energy dissipation during the tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predicting the moment-rotation response parameters of semirigid steel connections can be challenging given the many components contributing to the connection's elastic and plastic deformations. This is the case for the popular flush endplate beam-to-column connections (FEPCs). The literature has highlighted the limitations of current analytical, mechanical, and traditional empirical models in providing accurate predictions of the FEPCs' moment-rotation response. Considering this limitation, machine-learning methods have gained wide attention recently in structural engineering applications to address problems associated with complex structural deformation and damage phenomena. To that end, the superior nonlinearity of artificial neural networks (ANN) is employed herein to predict the response characteristics of FEPCs. A large data set of about 200 specimens, collected from past experimental programs, is utilized to train the ANN for predicting the bilinear response of FEPCs including strain hardening. The paper describes the deduction of the response parameters from test data using data fitting, the determination of significant geometric, material, and layout features, the ANN architecture and algorithms, and the accuracy metrics of the new model. The Shapley algorithm is used to explain the inner workings of the model. A computer tool as well as a descriptive guide to the mathematical construction of the ANN are provided to aid with model implementation in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an extensive numerical study on the seismic performance of steel eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) designed according to the ASCE 7-16 standard. A series of EBF building structures ranging from 2 to 12 stories located in downtown Los Angeles are designed with different yielding links, including conventional and replaceable links. The performance of the structures is investigated through nonlinear time-history analyses (NLTHAs) under a suite of 40 ground motions, selected and scaled to match the target uniform hazard spectrum. The peak deformations are first examined to assess the performance of the buildings as well as the design procedure. Residual deformations are also evaluated and critically compared with acceptable limits, to provide insight into the downtime and recovery time of EBFs after major earthquakes. Previous studies have demonstrated that the response of stable yielding systems to major earthquakes is often accompanied by significant residual deformations, and that residual drifts exceeding 0.5% can cause hindrance to the buildings occupants. In EBFs, in addition to residual drifts, residual link rotations are also relevant and expected to be more severe due to the localization of inelastic deformations in the yielding link. For replaceable modular yielding links, significant residual link rotations after major earthquakes will hinder repairs and the link replacement process, which is one of the important design objectives. The performance of EBFs is also compared with what was observed in previous studies for buckling restrained braced frames and special moment resisting frames. In the end, the results from the extensive NLTHAs are used to establish a relationship between peak drifts and peak link rotations in EBFs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitigating tornado damage remains a critical challenge for communities throughout much of the United States. Enhanced construction techniques typically used in hurricane-prone regions are often recommended as at least part of the solution, but the effectiveness of these techniques lacks empirical evaluation. This study investigates the performance of modern wood-frame residential structures in Arabi, LA, constructed to hurricane-resistant standards, that were impacted by a strong tornado on March 22, 2022. Field teams deployed beginning March 25, 2022, just three days after the tornado touched down, capturing perishable data on the building performance using vehicle-mounted surface-level panoramic cameras, forensic engineering investigations, and unmanned aerial systems. This paper describes the field deployments and identifies common failure mechanisms observed by the field teams. Analytical fragility functions are developed based on the load path observations and compared to empirical fragility functions generated from linking the building performance observations with wind speed estimates at each building derived from a parametric wind field model conditioned to tree-fall patterns. The study finds that despite the frequent use of hurricane-resistant hardware, such as hurricane straps and anchor bolts, key weak links elsewhere in the load path compromised the resistance and led to premature failures. The agreement between the empirically- and analytically-derived fragility functions was lacking, demonstrating the challenges that remain in understanding near-surface tornado wind loading and structural response. Nonetheless, the study provides a consensus framework for future tornado assessments that can help improve our understanding of tornado loading through the utilization of reconnaissance data. Further, the study findings on deficiencies in the load paths of homes in hurricane-prone regions have practical value to risk assessments and future construction practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The traditional approach to formulating building codes often is slow and labor-intensive, and may struggle to keep pace with the rapid evolution of technology and domain findings. Overcoming such challenges necessitates a methodology that streamlines the modernization of codal provisions. This paper proposes a machine learning (ML) approach to append a variety of codal provisions, including those of empirical, statistical, and theoretical natures. In this approach, a codal provision (i.e., equation) is analyzed to trace its properties (e.g., engineering intuition and causal logic). Then a ML model is tailored to preserve the same properties and satisfy a collection of similarity and performance measures until declared equivalent to the provision at hand. The resulting ML model harnesses the predictive capabilities of ML while arriving at predictions similar to the codal provision used to train the ML model, and hence it becomes possible to use in lieu of the codal expression. This approach was examined successfully for seven structural engineering phenomena contained within various building codes, including those in North America and Australia. The findings suggest that the proposed approach could lay the groundwork for implementing ML in the development of future building codes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elastomeric isolation bearings exhibit complex coupled horizontal-vertical behavior. Most existing macroscopic models simulate the quasistatic test results well but have deficiencies in simulating the dynamic behavior of bearings. In this paper, the experimental observations of previous dynamic bearing tests were investigated. The simulation capacity of existing macroscopic models was checked by comparison with the test data. The results show that the calculated axial load and hysteresis loops exhibit undesired oscillations under dynamic excitation. The intrinsic deficiency of existing models in simulating the dynamic response of a bearing was identified as the coupling or off-diagonal terms in the tangent stiffness matrix and the variation of vertical stiffness of the model. Motivated from this key observation, a new macroscopic model was developed to account for the dynamic behavior of bearings, followed by the suggestion of its numerical implementation. Through the introduction of a new axial load expression, the tangent stiffness matrix of the new model was semidecoupled, and the vertical stiffness of the new model remains unchanged, which reduced the interaction between the horizontal and vertical behavior. The simulation capacity of the new model was then validated by comparison with previous test data. The results show that the new model effectively captures the axial load variation and hysteresis loop of the bearings under dynamic excitations. Moreover, it was found that the consideration of the bearing height improved the simulation accuracy, and the size effect of the bearing is critical for isolated structures with large bearing-to-superstructure-height ratio, such as low- to medium-span bridges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates experimentally and numerically the buckling behavior of three-layered cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels under in-plane axial compression. The main aim is to assess the panels' ultimate limit load and their typical failure mechanisms. A total of 14 specimens were tested. Seven of them were homogeneous (HO series), entirely made of beech, whereas the others were hybrid (HB series), made of beech (outer layers) and Corsican pine (inner layer). The tests gave evidence of a rather stable column buckling capacity for CLT panels, with evidence of major failure mode due to bending. In some cases, rolling shear and delamination were highlighted as additional failure mechanisms. Finally, further assessment of experimental evidence is provided by extended analytical calculations (based on existing formulations, including the Eurocode 5 approach) and even finite-element (FE) numerical analyses for the examined three-layer CLT compositions. Comparative results are discussed in terms of structural performance, capacity, and weakness of analytical models for CLT solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) show great potential in self-centering structures because of their appealing superelastic feature and good energy dissipation capability. The mechanical properties of SMA bars have been extensively studied over the past decades. However, the characteristics of smooth surface and poor machinability of the SMA bars, especially the widely used nickel–titanium SMAs, bring challenges to the anchorage systems in practical applications. This existing limitation is especially prominent for SMA bars designed to be used at the critical deformation locations of structural members or in seismic devices experiencing extreme working conditions. For this reason, this paper develops a novel hybrid threaded-swaged anchorage system to overcome the limitations of the current SMA mechanical splices. The uniaxial behavior of the threaded-swaged anchorage systems under different loading conditions was investigated experimentally with emphasis on the seismic application-oriented responses. Furthermore, the influence of eccentricity on the anchorage system was also considered to evaluate the SMA bars with large end rotation induced by the rocking behavior of the self-centering structures during earthquake shaking. Test results reveal that the performance of the proposed anchorage system is satisfactory with stable behavior under different loading conditions, which can provide a promising anchorage solution for SMA bars used in seismic resilient design. Moreover, a practical design method for this anchorage system is proposed for implementation in seismic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This correction notice addresses errors in the article "Collapse Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Frame Beams under Sustained Loads" by Ghazaleh M. Laleh, Ying Tian, and Sarah L. Orton. The errors occurred when converting imperial units to metric units in the "Bending Moment" section of the paper. The correction involves dividing the numbers on the horizontal axes of Figures 16 and 17, as well as the vertical axis of Figure 18, by 12. Additionally, two values in the last paragraph of this section need to be changed. The corrected figures are provided in the erratum. The purpose of this correction is to ensure the accuracy of the published version. [Extracted from the article]

The first step in current methodologies for the (probabilistic) performance-based fire safety design and assessment of structures is characterizing fire hazard scenario(s). Next, structural response analysis is performed to estimate hazard consequences in terms of damage or loss metrics of interest. These metrics are eventually appraised to verify whether various performance objectives are achieved and design iterations are needed. Nevertheless, such approaches rely on preliminary assumptions on the structural configuration and features characterizing scenarios used as thermal inputs. Consequently, they do not fully exploit the fire–structure coupling effect, where fire affects a structure, and the characteristics of the structure also affect the combustion process and fire dynamics. Indeed, the structural design choices define the fire scenarios that could potentially affect the structural and nonstructural performance. This paper introduces a consequence-oriented fire intensity optimization (CFO) approach to the fire safety design of structures to address such limitations. The proposed approach considers fire scenarios as additional design variables and delivers them as procedure outputs, optimizing the balance between increasing structural capacity and decreasing fire intensity. Furthermore, it evaluates the effect of input uncertainties through Monte Carlo sampling. A single-span bridge subject to a car fire is used to showcase the proposed approach. For this case study, it is shown that fire scenario characteristics (fuel bed and traffic load positions, heat release rate history) maximizing consequences are strongly correlated to the structural features and cannot be set a priori. Finally, design decisions exploiting the described coupling effect to achieve various performance objectives are discussed. Overall, the proposed approach highlights the benefits of enhancing the fire and heat transfer model's capability to capture the fire–structure coupling effect for achieving more optimized design solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dynamic characteristics of large-scale civil structures are generally evaluated by performing operational modal analysis based on ambient vibration records measured by contact sensors, e.g., accelerometers. However, owing to accessibility restrictions, it is sometimes inconvenient to conduct dynamic response measurements by contact sensors. Therefore, there is a need to adopt noncontact measurement technologies for monitoring the dynamic performance of civil structures. On the other hand, only response records are available for operational modal analysis on account of the unknown nature of ambient excitations, which may lead to uncertainties in modal estimates, particularly damping estimates. In this regard, this paper adopts a combined method consisting of modal decoupling, natural excitation technology, and an eigensystem realization algorithm to perform high-accuracy modal identification with uncertainty quantification. Through numerical simulation study of a frame structure, the accuracy and effectiveness of the combined method for identifying structural modal parameters are verified. Then, taking advantage of noncontact simultaneous multipoint measurements by an interferometric radar system and the combined modal estimation scheme, the noncontact operational modal analysis strategy is utilized to evaluate structural dynamic characteristics of a supertall building after experiencing a sudden vibration event that attracted considerable concern from the public. The purpose of this study is to provide a practical and reliable means of conducting modal estimation with uncertainty quantification from a single measurement and suggest a noncontact modal analysis strategy for structures with difficulty installing contact sensors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Displacement-based design (DBD) methods were originally developed in the 1990s for concrete structures and later modified for light-frame wood buildings and mass timber buildings. DBD methods use displacement as the design criterion to minimize economic losses, control component damage, and enable rapid return to functionality for increased resilience. This paper introduces a performance-based design check procedure that uses the direct displacement-based design (DDD) method and numerical pushover analysis for the design of cross-laminated timber and light-frame shear (CLT-LiFS) buildings. Prestressing CLT panels with embedded posttensioning high-strength steel cables or external high-strength steel rods enable them to provide robust lateral load resistance and self-centering capacity. LiFS walls offer additional lateral load resistance and energy dissipation through the slip of nail connections. A six-story CLT-LiFS building was used as a design example meeting three performance levels (damage limitation, life safety, 15 and collapse prevention) based on ASCE/SEI 41-17 criteria. Each performance level corresponds to a set of three criteria: interstory drift limits, cable stress limits, and CLT compressive strain limits at the rocking interface. The design was checked using a series of nonlinear time history (NLTH) analyses with a suite of ground motion records. The results from the design check procedure and the statistical distributions of performance criteria from NLTH analysis confirmed that the six-story CLT-LiFS building met performance expectations. Additionally, a collapse fragility curve was developed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the building's behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a design approach, the direct stiffness–strength method (DSSM), for the strength prediction of sheathed cold-formed steel (CFS) structural members. The DSSM considers each sheathing–fastener connection as a bracing point and incorporates its stiffness and strength in the CFS wall panel design. The DSSM is formulated and validated based on large experimental test results. The motivation for this work is to address research gaps in the latest American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) standards for the sheathing braced design of CFS structural members. A total of 41 individual sheathing–fastener connection tests were carried out, including parameters such as four different sheathing board types (to account for the performance of different sheathing) and seven different dimensions of the CFS Z-sections (to account for the slenderness). A new set of expressions was formulated to predict the stiffness and strength of the individual sheathing–fastener connections (bracing points) based on the observations from tests. A design-oriented assessment (comparing the design results with full-scale wall panel test results) indicated that the expressions formulated for DSSM are appropriate for the use of sheathed CFS Z-section member design. Further, this study used a design example to demonstrate the appropriateness of the DSSM approach. Since the introduction of the sheathing braced design concept in conjunction with the direct strength method (DSM) established by the American Iron and Steel Institute in RP13-1, this approach has gained traction among researchers to further enhance it for the various failure modes of the CFS structural members. However, there is an inconsistency in the sheathing bracing design concepts of the AISI design standards. The proposed DSSM is a simple one; it considers each sheathing fastener connection as a bracing point and incorporates its stiffness and strength in the CFS wall panel design. This proposed DSSM can be completed in two steps by checking the bracing ability of the provided sheathing. The DSSM method can be used with any design specification for determining the moment capacity of the CFS member with the contribution of the sheathing board. The design steps involved in DSSM are demonstrated with flowcharts and a design example. The DSSM proved that use of sheathing boards can eliminate the additional steel bracings at the intermediate length and breadth of the CFS wall panels, but steel bracings are required at the building corners for stability. This design method can realize up to a 15% reduction in steel consumption in the CFS building construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steel fibers in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) have been demonstrated to improve resistance to crack growth, decrease deflection, and increase fatigue life under cyclic loads. Using steel fibers as shear reinforcements, this paper investigates its effect on the postcracking shear fatigue behavior of nonstirrup UHPC beams. The study involved five UHPC beams comprising two static and three fatigue specimens to test the effects of the upper fatigue load, steel-fiber ratio, and stirrup ratio on the shear fatigue response. The test results showed that increasing the initial crack width in the nonstirrup UHPC beam from 0.05 to 0.2 mm (the equivalent of doubling the upper fatigue load) decreased the fatigue life from over two million to 24,875 cycles. The use of steel fibers in place of stirrups increased the residual-to-static strength and residual-to-initial stiffness ratios by 5% and 16%, respectively, after two million cycles. Compared with the specimen with stirrups, the steel-fiber-reinforced specimen had a lower midspan fatigue deflection-to-ultimate static deflection ratio owing to the relieved fatigue strain localization and increased tensile steel reinforcement-UHPC bond fatigue strength. The current codes predict the shear fatigue strength conservatively. A calculation model for accurately predicting fatigue deflection was proposed and compared with the existing test results. A future study on the wider parametric analysis and large-scale beam tests on the fatigue performance of these beams should be conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A variety of self-centering devices and structural systems have been proposed and investigated in recent years to eliminate or reduce postearthquake repair, but so far their applications are still very limited. This paper reports the seismic resilience enhancement of an irregular space structure by using friction-damped self-centering tension braces (FSTBs). First, the configuration, performance, and numerical model of FSTBs are introduced, and then a seismic design procedure for enhancing the seismic capacity of a torsional irregular structure is proposed. Taking the terminal building at the Harare Airport, a lifeline project in Zimbabwe, for example, unidirectional and three-dimensional nonlinear dynamic analyses were conducted on the building designed with and without FSTBs. The result shows that FSTBs can significantly reduce both story drifts and residual story drifts of the bottom reinforced concrete frame and displacements of the steel roof. To this end, the field assembly of FSTBs is briefly reported. The presented study provides references to the use of self-centering devices in seismic resilience upgrades of important engineering projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an experimental study of the seismic behavior of steel gravity frames with concrete on metal deck floor systems using multibay test specimens subjected to cyclic lateral loads. Fully bolted double-angle connections were used for the primary gravity connections under investigation. Key design variables and construction details under investigation include metal deck orientation, positioning of metal deck seams, and increased deck reinforcing ratios around the columns. Test specimens were simultaneously subjected to gravity loads and quasi-static displacement-controlled cyclic lateral loads. Results show that composite gravity connections exhibit substantial flexural stiffness, strength, and ductility, with some differences in response depending on connection design variables and construction details. Results from the system-level experiments using multibay test specimens demonstrate significant differences compared to previous subassembly tests, which indicates that the moment-resisting capacity of connections may potentially be underestimated in subassembly level tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composite pier, which consists of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) and normal strength concrete (NSC), is a promising option for practical engineering due to its remarkable mechanical performance. However, the cyclic behavior and seismic design mechanism of the composite pier have not been thoroughly investigated. This paper aims to study the cyclic performance of the composite pier by conducting cyclic tests on 10 specimens. The thickness of the UHPC tube, strength of reinforcement, spacing of stirrups, and other parameters are considered. The crack distribution, hysteretic response, and failure modes are observed and analyzed. Results show that the composite pier exhibits good crack-control ability, large bearing capacity, and effective energy dissipation. The expansion of the inner NSC may exacerbate the buckling of the UHPC tube, thus leading to more severe seismic damage. To further investigate the composite pier, a numerical model is established to analyze the optimal thickness of the UHPC tube. The ultimate state of the composite section is taken into consideration, and the upper and lower limits of the height of the compression zone are proposed. Based on the parametric analysis, a recommended range of the UHPC tube thickness is derived. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the problem of wind-induced vibration in tall buildings is addressed by utilizing a new type of damper, the tuned mass damper fluid inerter (TMDFI). The TMDFI incorporates an inerter in the classical tuned mass damper (TMD), which is physically realized using fluid in a helical channel. The device arrangement is optimized using a proposed nonlinear procedure and it is demonstrated through numerical simulations that the application of the TMDFI achieves excellent vibration control performance. Specifically, it has been found that the TMDFI requires lower mass and stroke requirements than traditional passive dampers while achieving comparable or better vibration reductions. It has been shown numerically that the damper demonstrates excellent vibration control capabilities by reducing the RMS displacement of the building by ≈50% and the RMS acceleration by 35%–80%. The results presented here show that the TMDFI is a damper capable of mitigating wind-induced vibrations in tall buildings with relatively simple design requirements. This new damper has the potential to significantly improve the safety, comfort, and durability of tall buildings subjected to wind loads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a probabilistic metamodeling framework for predicting the joint probability distribution of the interstory drift ratio (IDR) profile of multistory buildings. IDR is an engineering demand parameter that correlates well with structural and nonstructural damages. However, the use of IDR for regional loss estimation has not been practiced due to the high computational cost of such estimations. The metamodel proposed herein efficiently estimates the IDR profile while accounting for the cross-correlations. This facilitates the use of component-level damage and consequence models for regional loss estimations and significantly refines the resulting risk estimates compared with the current state of practice in regional risk analysis, which relies on a single-degree-of-freedom representation of a building. The proposed framework employs multivariate Bayesian regression calibrated using a large data set produced using detailed nonlinear time-history analyses. To showcase the methodology, metamodels are developed for predicting the IDR profile of special steel moment frame buildings of various heights ranging from three to 12 stories. The resulting models are validated against the output of detailed multidegree-of-freedom models at different levels of ground motion intensity. Finally, the proposed metamodel is employed for estimating the seismic loss of a nine-story building, and the results are compared with the loss using two extremes of modeling in terms of refinement and computational effort: the FEMA P-58 approach and the Hazus approach. The results confirm that the proposed metamodel significantly refines the loss estimates compared with those of Hazus with a computational effort that is four orders of magnitude smaller than that required by the FEMA P-58 approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steel multitiered concentrically braced frames (MT-CBFs) not specifically detailed for seismic resistance with a response modification factor of R=3 are permitted in moderate seismic regions. Past research studies, however, have raised concerns regarding the seismic performance of MT-CBFs and CBFs designed using R=3 provisions, namely the stability of columns in MT-CBFs and connection limit states in R=3 CBFs. This paper examines the seismic response of R=3 MT-CBFs and proposes a design method to improve their seismic performance. A set of 16 prototype R=3 MT-CBFs, ranging from 8 to 20 m tall with two to five tiers and located in a moderate seismic area, was selected and designed in accordance with 2016 US design guidelines. Nonlinear response-history analyses were then performed to examine the seismic response of these frames using fiber-based numerical models. R=3 MT-CBFs designed to 2016 design guidelines are shown to experience premature fracture in brace-to-beam/column connections in a single tier, which imposes high in-plane bending demands on columns and in some cases, leads to column instability or a tier-sway mechanism. New seismic design recommendations, including requirements for intermediate struts, columns, and tier drift, are proposed. The design method aims to prevent column instability or a tier-sway mechanism and protect brace connections from excessive deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an experimental study on the multidirectional cyclic lateral-load response of post-tensioned self-centering (SC) cross-laminated timber (CLT) shear walls. SC-CLT shear wall damage states are introduced and qualitatively defined in terms of the repairs needed to restore the lateral-load response of the SC-CLT wall. A comparison between SC-CLT wall damage states under unidirectional (in-plane) and multidirectional (in-plane and out-of-plane) lateral loading is presented. The experimental results show that the initiation of SC-CLT wall damage occurs at smaller story drifts under multidirectional loading compared to unidirectional loading. Engineering demand parameters (EDPs) are used to quantify the SC-CLT wall damage states. Uncertainty in the EDP value when a damage state occurs is considered and quantified. Using the experimental results, component (i.e., a CLT wall panel corner) and system (i.e., an entire SC-CLT wall) fragility functions are developed and presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the presence of softening section constitutive relations, classical beam theories predict erroneous strain singularities, and the corresponding force/flexibility-based (FB) beam-column element formulations result in strain localization and loss of response objectivity, i.e., divergence, rather than convergence, with progressive mesh refinements. To address this challenge, various FB element formulations have been proposed in the literature. One of these formulations is the so-called "gradient inelastic" (GI) FB formulation, which is a two-node element formulation that eliminates the strain localization and achieves response objectivity through strain gradient nonlocality relations. Although a single two-node GI element can effectively simulate an entire beam or column, simulating such a member via multiple two-node GI elements in series (e.g., to apply intermediate point loads, to more accurately capture geometric nonlinearities, or to represent cross-section variation) would not lead to accurate response predictions. This is because, in a model with multiple two-node GI elements in series, the nonlocality relations are not enforced at the intermediate/connection nodes between adjacent elements. Instead, end member boundary conditions (BCs) are enforced at those connection nodes because the two-node GI formulation has been designed to simulate an entire member. To tackle this shortcoming, this paper proposes an innovative multinode GI FB element formulation. To enforce the nonlocality relations at the connection nodes, two different sets of mathematically admissible section strain compatibility conditions (CCs) are adopted. The multinode formulations using both sets of CCs are evaluated through several simulation examples, including beams and columns subjected to various loads. The evaluations demonstrate the ability of both element formulations to produce objective softening responses, while one set of CCs is found to more closely predict the responses of previously tested RC beams under midspan loading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When designing steel members with nonsymmetric cross sections, it is essential to consider twisting effects when performing stability checks via second-order analysis according to the ANSI/AISC 360-22. Existing line-element formulations for nonsymmetric sections are mostly derived based on thin-walled assumptions, leading to an overestimation of member strength due to the inaccurate prediction of member behavior, especially when the cross sections have moderate wall thickness. This paper proposes an efficient line-element method for second-order analysis of steel members with nonsymmetric thick-walled sections considering the warping degree of freedom (DOF) and the twisting effects along with the transverse shear deformations. Additionally, a two-dimensional (2D) finite-element cross section analysis method employing the constant strain triangle (CST) element is developed to calculate the section properties for arbitrary cross sections, including the Wagner and the shear coefficients. The proposed method is implemented in the educational structural analysis software MASTAN2 and verified through two sets of examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels for building construction has increased over the last several decades, current standards and existing literature provide limited information regarding the design of CLT diaphragms or the prediction of their deflections when subjected to wind and strong earthquake motions. This paper presents the design and assessment of a CLT diaphragm that was part of a full-scale two-story structure subjected to shake-table testing. An analytical model is proposed for diaphragm deflection accounting for in-plane shear and bending stiffness, as well as the stiffness of various connections. Moreover, a refined numerical modeling strategy is proposed in order to consider phenomena such as panel-to-panel gap closure. Results indicate that the analytical model yields conservative results both in terms of deflections and forces when compared to the numerical model that simulates similar sources of strength and stiffness. The analytical model is suitable for the design of symmetric diaphragms with regular shapes, whereas the numerical model can also be used to model asymmetric diaphragms with irregular shapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Balloon-type mass timber shear walls are one of the most efficient structural systems to resist lateral loads induced by earthquakes or high winds. They are a viable solution for high-rise buildings because they have several key advantages, such as reducing connections and avoiding accumulating compression perpendicular to grain in the floors. This system, however, is not included in current Canadian building code and has no design guidelines in the Canadian timber standard, so it is out of reach of most designers. A multiyear research project has been initiated to quantify the system performance and develop the necessary technical information to codify balloon-type mass timber shear walls. In this paper, the limits for the building height of balloon mass timber shear walls were investigated theoretically. A mechanics-based analytical model was developed to analyze the building height limits governed mainly by the mass timber panels. The influence of loading types (seismic versus wind loads), lateral load levels, panel deformation contribution, seismic force modification factors, and vertical joints between panels on the building heights was investigated using the developed model. The results of this study will give a valuable insight into the seismic performance of balloon type cross-laminated timber (CLT) shear walls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents experimental investigations on the lateral performance of cross-laminated timber (CLT) shear walls with customized self-tapping screw (STS) connections. The panel-to-base (hold-downs and shear brackets) and panel-to-panel (spline) connections were tested under quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic loading to derive design values of STS, which were shown to be 2.8–3.6 times higher than those calculated using the current Canadian timber design standard. Then, a total of 26 CLT shear walls, including single-, double- and triple-panel configurations, were tested, again under quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic loading. The shear walls consisted of five-ply, 139-mm-thick and 3-m-high CLT panels with aspect ratio of either 2∶1 or 3∶1 , and different numbers of STS in the connections. The shear wall strength and corresponding displacements increased with the number of screws in hold-downs and spline joints; further, it increased with number of connected panels and decreased as a function of aspect ratio. The data can be used for developing and calibrating numerical models to investigate the lateral responses of CLT shear walls with different configurations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protecting critical equipment in seismically excited buildings is essential to ensure functionality after an earthquake. Individual equipment or equipment sets can be seismically isolated from the building motion. Special isolators can be employed to mitigate the most severe accelerations that occur in the horizontal direction of a building. This paper presents the results of an investigation of the performance of an uncoupled bidirectional isolation system for horizontal isolation using a novel adaptive restoring force (ARF) device. The device changes the structural response transmitted to floor-mounted equipment by filtering the most intense portions of input floor acceleration histories to minimize the acceleration of the equipment and the stress demands imposed by the supporting structures. The ARF device utilizes restoring and damping elements to generate restoring forces that vary nonlinearly with displacement, resulting in a force–displacement curve with varying slopes and loading and unloading paths. The force–displacement relationship of the ARF device is characterized by high stiffness at small and large displacements, and low stiffness in between. A small-scale prototype was constructed to validate the ARF concept, and its force–displacement properties were observed for cyclic loading. A numerical model was developed that accurately predicted the relationship between the device force and displacement. The system's performance was evaluated through numerical analysis of equipment installed on different levels of multistory buildings subjected to measured floor accelerations. The results showed that the horizontal isolation system effectively limited the transmission of the floor accelerations to the equipment. Furthermore, the results showed that the isolation system transformed the seismic acceleration profile from a high-amplitude and -frequency signal to one with a low quasi-constant amplitude and low frequency, acting as a low-pass filter under the most intense time window of the floor acceleration. Protecting critical equipment can be a significant concern for those who manage or work in facilities vulnerable to earthquakes. This study presents a new technology for horizontal seismic isolation of equipment, the adaptive restoring force device, that effectively minimizes the damaging effects of earthquakes on floor-mounted equipment in multistory buildings. The ARF device protects equipment by filtering out the most intense and destructive vibrations accompanying earthquakes, thus reducing accelerations on the equipment and its supporting structures. It transforms high-amplitude and -frequency vibrations to lower, more-constant levels. Unique to the ARF device is its adaptability to work effectively on any floor of a building, even on rooftops, while allowing considerable relative movement between the equipment and the floor. The results of this study are promising—equipment experienced reduced and nearly constant low-frequency accelerations during simulated seismic events. Although further research is required to address more complex problems, such as building torsion and vertical seismic effects, preliminary findings suggest that the ARF device offers a practical solution for preserving vital floor-mounted equipment in multistory buildings in earthquake-prone regions. This device can prove invaluable as a tangible solution for businesses, industries, and hospitals dependent on critical equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper deals with the optimal design of nonprismatic beams, i.e., beams with variable cross section. To set the optimization problem, Euler-Bernoulli unshearable beam theory is considered and the elastica equation expressing the transverse displacement as a function of the applied loads is reformulated into a system of four differential equations involving kinematic components and internal forces. The optimal solution (in terms of volume) must satisfy two constraints: the maximum Von Mises equivalent stress must not exceed an (ideal) strength, and the maximum vertical displacement is limited to a fraction of beam length. To evaluate the maximum equivalent stress in the beam, normal and shear stresses have been considered. The former was evaluated through the Navier formula, and the latter through a formula derived from Jourawsky and holding for straight and untwisted beams with bisymmetric variable cross sections. The optimal solutions as function of material unit weight, maximum strength, and applied load are presented and discussed. It is shown that the binding constraint is usually represented by the maximum stress in the beam, and that applied load and strength affect the solution more than material unit weight. To maintain the generality of the solution, the nondimensionalization according to Buckingham Π -theorem is implemented and a design abacus is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the optimum outrigger locations of the outrigger-braced structure are studied by considering the influence of the core-wall width and structural asymmetry. The axial forces in the columns are taken as unknowns, and the compatibility equations of the columns' axial deformation are formulated in terms of the axial forces. Then, the equations governing the optimum locations of the outriggers are formulated to minimize the top drift of the core wall. After that, the parametric analysis on the optimum locations of outriggers, drift-reduction efficiency, and moment-reduction efficiency in the base of the core wall are conducted numerically. The influences of different structural parameters on the optimum locations of outriggers, drift-reduction efficiency, and moment-reduction efficiency in the base of the core wall are all discussed. The change of optimum outrigger locations with the increase of ω is obviously when r=2 or η=0. For the structure with a larger core-wall width, a smaller number of outriggers can be adopted regarding the drift or moment-reduction efficiency. For instance, the drift or moment-reduction efficiency of the structure with one outrigger when η=0.5 is close to the drift or moment-reduction efficiency of the structure with two outriggers when η=0.25. Some results are presented for reference in the preliminary structural design of asymmetrical outrigger-braced structures with limited core width. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]