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Consistent with international reports,1 this group of Tourette syndrome (TS) experts has noticed a recent increase in adolescents presenting with tic-like symptoms that show a markedly atypical onset and course. These sudden-onset motor movements and vocalizations are often associated with significant impairment and disability, resulting in emergency department visits and hospitalizations for some affected youths.

Objective Exposure tasks are recognized widely as a key component of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for child and adolescent anxiety. However, little research has examined specific exposure characteristics that predict outcomes for youth with anxiety and that may guide its application in therapy. Method This study draws on a sample of 279 children and adolescents (48.4% male; 79.6% white) with a principal anxiety disorder who received 14 sessions of CBT, either alone or in combination with medication, through the Child/adolescent Anxiety Multimodal treatment Study (CAMS). The present study examines therapist-reported quantity, difficulty level, compliance, and mastery of exposure tasks as they related to CBT response (i.e., Clinical Global Impressions−Improvement ratings). Secondary treatment outcomes included reduction in anxiety symptom severity on the Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale, global impairment measured via the Children’s Global Assessment Scale, and parent-report of anxiety-specific functional impairment on the Child Anxiety Impairment Scale. Results Regression analyses indicated a dose–response relationship between therapist-reported quantity of exposure and independent evaluations of treatment outcome, with more time devoted to exposure linked to better outcomes. Similarly, greater time spent on more difficult (rather than mild or moderate) exposure tasks predicted better outcomes, as did therapist ratings of child compliance and mastery. Conclusion The present findings highlight the importance of challenging children and adolescents with difficult exposure tasks and of collaborating to ensure compliance and mastery.

Objective Persistent irritability and behavior outbursts in disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) are associated with severe impairment in childhood and with negative adolescent and adult outcomes. There are no empirically established treatments for DMDD. This study examined the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of dialectical behavior therapy adapted for preadolescent children (DBT-C) with DMDD. Method Children 7 to 12 years old with DMDD (N = 43) were randomly assigned 1:1 to DBT-C or treatment as usual (TAU). The 6 domains of feasibility included recruitment, randomization, retention, attendance, participants’ satisfaction, and therapist adherence. Blinded raters assessed participants at baseline, after 8, 16, 24, and 32 weeks, and at 3-month follow-up. The primary efficacy outcome was the positive response rate on the Clinical Global Impression–Improvement scale. Improvements in behavior outbursts and angry/irritable mood were assessed by the Clinical Global Impression–Severity scale. Results Mean number of participants randomized per month was 2.53 ± 2.72. Participants in DBT-C (n = 21) attended 89% of sessions compared with 48.6% in TAU (n = 22). Eight TAU participants (36.4%) dropped out compared with none in DBT-C. Parents and children in DBT-C expressed significantly higher treatment satisfaction than those in TAU. The rate of positive response was 90.4% in DBT-C compared with 45.5% in TAU, despite 3 times as many participants in TAU receiving psychiatric medications. Remission rates were 52.4% for DBT-C and 27.3% for TAU. Improvements were maintained at 3-month follow-up. Therapists showed adherence to DBT-C. Conclusion DBT-C demonstrated feasibility in all prespecified domains. Outcomes also indicated preliminary efficacy of DBT-C. Clinical trial registration information—Adapting DBT for Children With DMDD: Pilot RCT; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ ; NCT01862549 .

Objective To determine optimal percent reduction and raw score cutoffs on the parent- and child-report Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) for predicting treatment response and remission among youth with anxiety disorders. Method Data were obtained from youth (N = 438; 7–17 years old) who completed treatment in the Child/Adolescent Anxiety Multimodal treatment Study, a multisite, randomized clinical trial that examined the relative efficacy of medication (sertraline), cognitive-behavioral therapy (Coping Cat), their combination, and pill placebo for the treatment of separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and social phobia. The parent- and youth-report SCARED were administered at pre- and posttreatment. Quality receiver operating characteristic methods evaluated the performance of various SCARED percent reduction and absolute cutoff scores in predicting treatment response and remission, as defined by posttreatment ratings on the Clinical Global Impression scales and the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule. Results Reductions of 55% on the SCARED-Parent and 50% on the SCARED-Youth optimally predicted treatment response. Posttreatment absolute raw scores of 10 (SCARED-Parent) and 12 (SCARED-Youth) optimally predicted remission in the total sample, although separate SCARED-Parent cutoffs for children (12–13) and adolescents (9) showed greatest quality of efficiency. Each cutoff significantly predicted response and remission at 6-month follow-up. Conclusion Results serve as guidelines for operationalizing treatment response and remission on the SCARED, which could help clinicians systematically monitor treatment outcomes of youth with anxiety disorders in a cost- and time-efficient manner. Clinical trial registration information—Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders (CAMS); http://clinicaltrials.gov/ ; NCT00052078 .

onverbal children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intelN lectual disabilities, or communication disorders who are nonverbal with co-occurring medical problems can present with a change in behavior and little other indication that they are experiencing illness or pain. For clinicians, first considering new or worsening medical problems in the nonverbal child or adolescent rather than a change in psychiatric statusmight lower the risk of ongoing suffering and impairment. Such consideration also, importantly, might decrease the likelihood of patient exposure to inappropriate psychiatric care, including hospital admission and unneeded psychotropic medication. Although child and adolescent psychiatrists are aware of and consider medical issues first in the differential diagnosis, we are increasingly reliant on other medical professionals to “medically clear” our patients for psychiatric care. The ability of the child psychiatrist to advocate for the medical assessment of behavior change in nonverbal patients is of particular importance given higher than expected rates of medical conditions in those with ASD or other developmental disorders. Specifically, children with ASD are 1.8 times more likely to have asthma, 1.6 times more likely to have eczema or skin allergies, 2.2 timesmore likely to have chronic severe headaches, and 3.5 times more likely to have chronic diarrhea or colitis compared with typically developing children. The medical evaluation of a behavior change can be more complicated with the nonverbal child and even challenging for pediatricians. Here we discuss 4 patient examples in various psychiatric treatment settings to illustrate how infection, foreign body insertion, medication side effects, and pain can present as aggression and irritability that would not have been managed appropriately without a primary medical focus in the initial psychiatric workup. In these examples, the diagnosis of a medical condition leading to an acute

Objective Both the diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in youth remain the subject of debate. In the Treatment of Early Age Mania (TEAM) study, risperidone was more effective than lithium or divalproex in children diagnosed with bipolar mania and highly comorbid with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We searched for treatment moderators and predictors of outcome. Method TEAM was a multi-site, 8-week, randomized clinical trial of risperidone, lithium, or divalproex in 279 medication-naive patients, aged 6 through 15 years, with a DSM-IV diagnosis of bipolar disorder currently in manic or mixed phase. Outcome measures included binary end-of-treatment responder status and change in the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS) Mania Rating Scale (KMRS). Baseline demographics and clinical characteristics were tested as modifiers of treatment effect and as overall predictors of outcome. Results Moderator effects were detected for site, ADHD, and obesity. Across sites, the response ratio (RR) for risperidone versus lithium ranged from 1.2 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.8-1.7) to 8.3 (95% CI=1.1-60.8), and for risperidone versus divalproex from 1.3 (95% CI=0.8-2.2) to 10.5 (95% CI=1.4-77.7). The RR for risperidone versus lithium was 2.1 for patients with ADHD, but 1.0 for those without ADHD, and 2.3 (95% CI=1.6-3.3) for nonobese patients, but 1.1 (95% CI=0.6-2.0) for obese ones. Older age and less severe ADHD symptoms were associated with greater improvement on the KMRS. Conclusions Risperidone was more effective than lithium or divalproex across the demographics and clinical characteristics of the sample, but the magnitude of its effect was influenced by site-related characteristics and presence of ADHD. Clinical trial registration information—Treatment of Early Age Mania; http://clinicaltrials.gov/; NCT00057681.

Objective To describe characteristics and correlates of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) among the White Mountain Apache Tribe. NSSI has not been studied before in American Indian samples despite associated risks for suicide, which disproportionately affect American Indian youth. Method Apache case managers collected data through a tribally mandated surveillance system. Data from 2007 and 2008 (N = 182) were examined for rates, methods, precipitants, functions, past history of self-injury and service use, by age and gender. Results The rate of NSSI among all ages was 600 in 100,000, with individuals 10 to 14 years old disproportionately affected at a rate of 3,000 in 100,000. More females (65%) reported NSSI, and cutting was the preferred method (98%) for both genders combined. Most frequently reported precipitants were peer pressure/copying, conflict with boy/girlfriend and "depression." A substantial proportion (22%) was intoxicated/high at the time. More reported the function of NSSI was to "effect internal state" (45%) than "effect circumstances" (15%). More than one-third (39%) received ED treatment and referrals for aftercare (36%). Of those referred, only 30% followed up with services. Most (79%) reported past NSSI; 30% reported past suicidal ideation and 25% attempts. Conclusions NSSI is a significant, largely unaddressed mental health problem among the White Mountain Apache Tribe and likely other reservation communities, especially as NSSI could serve as a precursor to suicide in this population. Interestingly, another self-destructive behavior, severe substance use, was reported to the surveillance system by Apaches and described in terms similar to NSSI, an important preliminary finding worth further exploration.

Objective This study examined the prevalence and demographic and clinical correlates of children diagnosed with Tourette disorder, chronic motor or vocal tic disorder, and other tic disorders in public and private insurance plans over the course of a 1-year period. Method Claims were reviewed of Medicaid (n = 10,247,827) and privately (n = 16,128,828) insured youth (4-18 years old) focusing on tic disorder diagnoses during a 1-year period. Rates are presented for children with each tic disorder diagnosis overall and stratified by demographic characteristics and co-identified mental disorders. Mental health service use, including medications prescribed, and co-existing psychiatric disorders were also examined. Results In Medicaid-insured children, rates of diagnosis per 1,000 were 0.53 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.51-0.55) for Tourette disorder, 0.08 (95% CI 0.07-0.08) for chronic motor or vocal tic disorder, and 0.43 (95% CI 0.41-0.44) for other tic disorders. In privately insured children, comparable rates were 0.50 (95% CI 0.49-0.52), 0.10 (95% CI 0.10-0.11), and 0.59 (95% CI 0.58-0.61). In 1 year, children diagnosed with tic disorders also frequently received other psychiatric disorder diagnoses. Compared with privately insured youth, children under Medicaid diagnosed with Tourette disorder had higher rates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (50.2% versus 25.9%), other disruptive behavior (20.6% versus 5.6%), and depression (14.6% versus 9.8%) diagnoses and higher rates of antipsychotic medication use (53.6% versus 33.2%). Conclusions Despite similarities in annual rates of tic disorder diagnoses in publicly and privately insured children, important differences exist in patient characteristics and service use of publicly and privately insured youth who are diagnosed with tic disorders.

Objective: To examine the course of depression during the treatment of adolescents with depression who had recently attempted suicide. Method: Adolescents (N = 124), ages 12 to 18 years, with a 90-day history of suicide attempt, a current diagnosis of depressive disorder (96.0% had major depressive disorder), and a Children’s Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R) score of 36 or higher, entered a 6-month treatment with antidepressant medication, cognitive-behavioral therapy focused on suicide prevention, or their combination (Comb), at five academic sites. Treatment assignment could be either random or chosen by study participants. Intent-to-treat, mixed effects regression models of depression and other relevant ratings were estimated. Improvement and remission rates were computed with the last observation carried forward. Results: Most patients (n = 104 or 84%) chose treatment assignment, and overall, three fourths (n = 93) received Comb. In Comb, CDRS-R declined from a baseline adjusted mean of 49.6 (SD 12.3) to 38.3 (8.0) at week 12 and to 27.0 (10.1) at week 24 (p < .0001), with a Clinical Global Impressionjdefined improvement rate of 58.0% at week 12 and 72.2% at week 24 and a remission (CDRS-R e28) rate of 32.5% at week 12 and 50.0% at week 24. The CDRS-R and the Scale for Suicidal Ideation scores were correlated at baseline (r =0 .43,p < .0001) and declined in parallel. Conclusions: When vigorously treated with a combination of medication and psychotherapy, adolescents with depression who have recently attempted suicide show rates of improvement and remission of depression that seem comparable to those observed in nonsuicidal adolescents with depression. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2009;48(10):997Y1004. Key Words: adolescents, suicide, depression, treatment. Clinical trial registration informationVTreatment of Adolescent Suicide Attempters (TASA). URL: http:// clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00080158.

Objective To improve the methods for long-term assessment of drug-associated side effects and advance knowledge of the safety profile of psychotropic medications in children and adolescents. Method A multidisciplinary, interactive workshop was hosted by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and the Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology network. Participants were experts in child and adolescent psychiatry, psychopharmacology, pharmacoepidemiology, and statistics from academia, the pharmaceutical industry, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the NIMH. Evaluation of drug safety was examined from five perspectives: research design and methods, industry, regulatory requirements, bioethics, and practice settings. For each of these areas, special emphasis was placed on identifying barriers and generating solutions. Results A major obstacle is the lack of standardization of the methods used for collecting safety data. The limitations of both randomized clinical trials and passive postmarketing surveillance in assessing long-term safety were recognized. The need to consider alternative approaches, such as registries and trend analysis of population-based databases, was highlighted. Recommendations were proposed together with possible approaches to implementation. Conclusions A concerted effort by academic researchers, industry, FDA, practitioners, and NIMH is needed to standardize methods and lay the foundations for systematic research on the long-term safety of psychotropic medications in children.

Objective Elicitation is an essential and critical step in ascertaining adverse events (AEs). This report reviews elicitation methods used in published clinical trials of psychopharmacological agents in children. Method Pediatric psychopharmacology reports were reviewed for safety methods in the Medline database. Studies were included if they were published 1980 or later, provided data on AEs, and described the ascertainment methodology used for determining them. Results A review of 196 pediatric psychopharmacology articles depicting safety assessments in clinical studies over the past 22 years revealed that there was no common method used for eliciting or reporting AE data. Conclusions The current inconsistency in safety data ascertainment is a major limitation that likely impairs the ability to promptly and accurately identify drug-induced AEs. Research on how best to standardize safety methods should be considered a priority in pediatric psychopharmacology.

To determine the safety and efficacy of fluvoxamine for the treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) with a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study.Subjects, aged 8 to 17 years, meeting DSM-III-R criteria for OCD were recruited from July 1991 to August 1994. After a 7- to 14-day single-blind, placebo washout/screening period, subjects were randomly assigned to fluvoxamine 50 to 200 mg/day or placebo for 10 weeks. Subjects who had not responded after 6 weeks could discontinue the double-blind phase of the study and enter a long-term, open-label trial of fluvoxamine. Analyses used an intent-to-treat sample with a last-observation-carried-forward method.Mean Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS) scores with fluvoxamine were significantly (p.05) different from those with placebo at weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 10. Significant (p.05) differences between fluvoxamine and placebo were observed for all secondary outcome measures at all visits. Based on a 25% reduction of CY-BOCS scores, 42% of subjects taking fluvoxamine were responders compared with 26% taking placebo. Forty-six (19 fluvoxamine, 27 placebo) of 120 randomized subjects discontinued early. Adverse events with a placebo-adjusted rate greater than 10% were insomnia and asthenia.Fluvoxamine has a rapid onset of action and is well tolerated and efficacious for the short-term treatment of pediatric OCD.