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Active volcanic craters are highly dynamic geological features that undergo morphological changes on a broad range of spatial and temporal scales. Such changes have implications for the stability of the edifice, the eruptive style and the associated hazards. However, monitoring the morphological evolution of active craters at high spatial resolution and over long periods of time can be challenging, especially at remote volcanoes. In this study, we demonstrate the potential of Structure-from-Motion Multi-View Stereo photogrammetry technique based on crowd-sourced data, applied to the case study of Oldoinyo Lengai (OL) volcano in northern Tanzania. Following the 2007–08 paroxysm, OL volcano resumed its characteristic effusive activity and started to fill in with lava the newly-formed 300 m wide and 130 m deep pit crater. Monitoring capability is limited at OL due to its location in a remote non-urbanized area, therefore, the eruptive and morphological evolution is poorly constrained (e.g., lava emission rates, number of vents, location of unstable areas), with hazard implications for tourists visiting the summit area. Here we use crowd-sourced images, including Unoccupied Aircraft System (UAS) images, ground-based videos and pictures collected between October 2014 and June 2022, to reconstruct high-resolution topographic time-series of OL's summit crater. With these data, we have generated 7 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of OL's pit crater spanning the past 8 years, and estimated the emitted volume of lava and the corresponding time averaged discharge rates (TADR). From this we characterize the geomorphological evolution of OL pit crater since the 2007–08 paroxysm and perform a preliminary hazard assessment of the crater area. InSAR COSMO-SkyMed and Sentinel-1 data covering the periods 2013–2014 and 2018–2019 were also used in this study to complement our observations. Our results indicate that the main location of lava emission within the crater floor has repeatedly shifted over the years and that the 2008 cone has experienced a subsidence over time. OL's TADR has increased over the years, reaching values one order of magnitude higher in the period 2021–2022 compared to 2014–2018. Assuming similar TADR in the coming years, the crater could be filled in by lava within the next decade, leading to new lava overflows on the flanks of the volcano. • Photogrammetric time-series provide a 3D reconstruction of Oldoinyo Lengai crater. • Volumetric changes measured at Oldoinyo Lengai. • Oldoinyo Lengai's natrocarbonatite emission rate has increased in the past 8 years. • Oldoinyo Lengai's pit crater could be completely filled within the next decade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic activity excites low frequency acoustic waves, termed infrasound, in the atmosphere. Infrasound observations can be used to provide constraints on eruption properties, such as crater geometry and volume flux. At open-vent volcanoes, such as Erebus (Antarctica) and Villarrica (Chile), the infrasound signal is modulated by the crater properties. Eruptive activity at the bottom of the crater, such as unsteady degassing or explosions, can excite the air mass within the crater into resonance leading to infrasound generation with signals possessing clear spectral peaks, termed harmonics. Therefore, the effect of the crater on the infrasound signal, or crater acoustic response, must be accounted for when inverting harmonic infrasound observations for eruption properties at open-vent volcanoes. Here we develop a linearized model of quasi-one-dimensional (1D) wave propagation inside volcanic crater coupled with 3D axisymmetric radiation into the atmosphere from the crater, with waves generated by a volumetric flow rate source at the bottom of the crater. We perform simulations for a range of volcanic crater geometries, temperature profiles, gas compositions, and source descriptions to explore the influence of these properties on the infrasound signal. The observed infrasound signal depends on the flow rate source-time function, but interference of up- and down-going waves within the crater selectively amplifies the signal at the resonant frequencies of the crater. The crater resonance model presented here is verified by comparison with an established three-dimensional (3D) infrasound code and is shown to be appropriate for realistic crater geometries when the crater radius is less than approximately one quarter of the acoustic wavelength. The model presented here is more computationally efficient and can be used to invert infrasound observations for a range of properties, such as crater geometry or volumetric flow rate associated with eruptions. We demonstrate the utility of our efficient modeling framework by inverting harmonic infrasound observations for the crater geometry and position of the lava lake at Villarrica volcano. This technique may be used at other open-vent volcanoes to constrain dynamic crater geometry and provide insights about lava lake motions and infrasound producing eruption sources. • Harmonic infrasound from open-vent volcanoes is explained by resonance of crater. • We develop an efficient quasi-1D crater model that describes crater acoustic resonance. • Can invert harmonic infrasound signals for volcano properties, such as crater geometry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• First detailed mapping of the hidden active crater of Lascar volcano by UAS. • Topographical changes of the active crater quantified by DEM of difference analysis. • Thermal orthomosaic helps to determine thermal anomalies and fumaroles. • Nested ring structures have been identified on the crater floor. • Ring structures imply a narrow conduit top less than 40 m in diameter. Details of ongoing changes in geomorphology and structure of nested volcanic craters are lacking due to the difficult and hazardous access. In this study, we present a novel unoccupied aircraft system (UAS) dataset collected at Lascar, northern Chile, one of the most active volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. Lascar features nested craters, the deepest crater of which has experienced repeated lava dome emplacement and numerous violent explosions in recent decades. We performed UAS surveys in 2017 and 2020 to collect the optical and thermal imaging data of the active crater. By applying the Structure-from-Motion (SfM) method, we obtained centimeter-scale optical and thermal orthomosaics as well as digital terrain models. We quantify the spatial and volumetric changes that occurred during the observation period. The results show material removal from the crater wall and a significant accumulation of volcanic material on the crater floor. The thermal orthomosaic helps identify thermal anomalies and the spatial distribution of fumaroles. The highest thermal anomaly was found on the crater floor and delimited by ring structures. Both the optical orthomosaics and DEMs from 2017 and 2020 showed a consistent ring structure, which remained stable following two explosive events. Possible localized subsidence was observed within the ring structure. Consequently, we hypothesize that the ring structure represents the surface expression of underlying concentric fracture systems and constrains a narrow conduit top. Our results provide important insights into an active crater's morphological, structural, and thermal features, with implications for understanding the formation mechanism and evolution of volcanic craters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ukinrek Maars erupted 30 March to 9 April 1977, forming two maars, a line of small pit craters and a tephra blanket extending to ~2 km from the vents. We combine photographic and written observations with stratigraphic analysis to reconstruct the eruption. The eruption began with very low (a few meters high) fountaining from small craters above an inferred east-west-trending dike, creating local scoria/spatter agglomerate ramparts with a sandy matrix. The eruption very quickly (in minutes to hours) centered on the West Maar. The West Maar eruption lasted 1–2 days, starting and ending with phreatomagmatic explosions with weak phreato-Strombolian activity in between. Initial explosions formed a 30-m-wide crater, enlarged by crater-wall collapse, and columns as high as 6500 m. Phreato-Strombolian activity produced ~72% of the erupted volume, including a small spatter cone and a scoria blanket around the vent. A final explosion series emplaced a lithic-rich breccia as ballistic blocks, possibly as the northern half of the final crater collapsed into the southern vent area. The East Maar formed over the last nine days of the eruption and represents ~93% of the total volume (4.6 × 10 6  m 3 ) of the Ukinrek eruption. Initial explosions were probably shallower than 10–20 m but most of the eruption occurred from explosions at 50–60 m below the pre-eruptive surface, with evidence of explosions to 90 m depth only at the very end of the eruption. The East Maar eruption mostly produced columns of lapilli, ash, and steam and the deposits are mostly fallout. Winds blew fallout mostly to the north for the first 5–6 days and to the south for the last three days of the eruption. Wind-directed pyroclastic density currents collapsed from the column, producing fines-rich layers within the coarser fallout. Sporadic explosions produced weak density currents in the first few days and lithic-and juvenile-block-rich breccias in the last few days of the eruption. We interpret that collapse of the crater walls made a slurry that in part provided the water for phreatomagmatic interaction. Explosions came from depths <90 m below the pre-eruptive surface except for a few explosions at the end of the eruption, with most occurring at <70 m depth. The East Maar crater was open to 40–60 m depth throughout most of the eruption, so the explosions were rarely, if ever, deeper than 30 m below the crater floor. Thus, we infer there is no classic, well-formed diatreme structure below the maar. Collapse of the East Maar crater walls provided a supply of water-saturated sediment for much of the phreatomagmatic activity, which came from two vents that did not migrate much, if at all, during the eruption. The Ukinrek Maars deposits were nearly entirely emplaced by fallout, rather than density currents, from explosions and low columns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A maar crater is the top of a much larger subsurface diatreme structure produced by phreatomagmatic explosions and the size and shape of the crater reflects the growth history of that structure during an eruption. Recent experimental and geophysical research has shown that crater complexity can reflect subsurface complexity. Morphometry provides a means of characterizing a global population of maar craters in order to establish the typical size and shape of features. A global database of Quaternary maar crater planform morphometry indicates that maar craters are typically not circular and frequently have compound shapes resembling overlapping circles. Maar craters occur in volcanic fields that contain both small volume and complex volcanoes. The global perspective provided by the database shows that maars are common in many volcanic and tectonic settings producing a similar diversity of size and shape within and between volcanic fields. A few exceptional populations of maars were revealed by the database, highlighting directions of future research to improve our understanding on the geometry and spacing of subsurface explosions that produce maars. These outlying populations, such as anomalously large craters (>3000 m), chains of maars, and volcanic fields composed of mostly maar craters each represent a small portion of the database, but provide opportunities to reinvestigate fundamental questions on maar formation. Maar crater morphometry can be integrated with structural, hydrological studies to investigate lateral migration of phreatomagmatic explosion location in the subsurface. A comprehensive database of intact maar morphometry is also beneficial for the hunt for maar-diatremes on other planets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mutnovsky geothermal area is part of the Eastern Kamchatka active volcano belt. Mutnovsky, 80 kY old and an aging strato-volcano (a complex of 4 composite volcanic cones), acts as a magma- and water-injector into the 25-km-long North Mutnovsky extension zone. Magmatic injection events (dykes) are associated with plane-oriented MEQ (Micro Earth Quakes) clusters, most of them occurring in the NE sector of the volcano (2 × 10 km 2 ) at elevations from −4 to −2 km, while some magmatic injections occur at elevations from −6.0 to −4.0 km below the Mutnovsky production field. Water recharge of production reservoirs is from the Mutnovsky volcano crater glacier (+1500 to +1800 masl), which was confirmed by water isotopic data (δD, δ 18 O) of production wells at an earlier stage of development. The Mutnovsky (Dachny) 260–310 °C high-temperature production geothermal reservoir with a volume of 16 km 3 is at the junction of NNE- and NE-striking normal faults, which coincides with the current dominant dyke injection orientation. TOUGH2-modeling estimates of the reservoir properties are as follows: the reservoir permeability is 90–600 e-15 m 2 , the deep upflow recharge is 80 kg/s and the enthalpy is 1420 kJ/kg. Modeling was used to reproduce the history of the Mutnovsky (Dachny) reservoir exploitation since 1983 with an effective power of 48 MWe by 2016. Modeling also showed that the reservoir is capable of yielding 65–83 MWe of sustainable production until 2055, if additional production drilling in the SE part of the field is performed. Moreover, this power value may increase to 87–105 MWe if binary technologies are applied. Modeling also shows that the predicted power is sensitive to local meteoric water influx during development. Conceptual iTOUGH2-EOS1sc thermal hydrodynamic modeling of the Mutnovsky magma-hydrothermal system as a whole reasonably explains its evolution over the last 1500–5000 years in terms of heat recharge (dyke injection from the Mutnovsky-4 funnel) and mass recharge (water injection through the Mutnovsky-2 and Mutnovsky-3 funnels) conditions as previously mentioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paleomagnetic data for samples collected from outcrops of basaltic spatter at the Ubehebe Crater cluster, Death Valley National Park, California, record a single direction of remanent magnetization indicating that these materials were emplaced during a short duration, monogenetic eruption sequence ~ 2100 years ago. This conclusion is supported by geochemical data encompassing a narrow range of oxide variation, by detailed stratigraphic studies of conformable phreatomagmatic tephra deposits showing no evidence of erosion between layers, by draping of sharp rimmed craters by later tephra falls, and by oxidation of later tephra layers by the remaining heat of earlier spatter. This model is also supported through a reinterpretation and recalculation of the published 10 Be age results (Sasnett et al., 2012) from an innovative and bold exposure-age study on very young materials. Their conclusion of multiple and protracted eruptions at Ubehebe Crater cluster is here modified through the understanding that some of their quartz-bearing clasts inherited 10 Be from previous exposure on the fan surface (too old), and that other clasts were only exposed at the surface by wind and/or water erosion centuries after their eruption (too young). Ubehebe Crater cluster is a well preserved example of young monogenetic maar type volcanism protected within a National Park, and it represents neither a protracted eruption sequence as previously thought, nor a continuing volcanic hazard near its location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use infrasound waves generated during eruptions of Volcán Tungurahua (Ecuador) to study both, changing atmospheric conditions and volcanic source characteristics. Analyzed infrasound data were recorded for a 32-month period by a five-station network located within 6.5 km from the vent. We use cross-network correlation to quantify the recurrent eruptive behavior of Tungurahua and results are corroborated by reports from the Ecuadorian monitoring agency. Cross-network lag times vary over short time periods (minutes to days) when vent location is stable and attribute these variations to changes in atmospheric structure. Assuming a fixed source location, we invert for average air temperatures and winds in Tungurahua's vicinity (< 6.5 km) and find evidence for diurnal and semidiurnal tropospheric tides. We also use cross-network correlation lag times to compute infrasound source positions with resolutions of ~ 11.6 m, taking into account coarse NOAA atmospheric models for local winds and temperatures. Variable infrasound-derived source locations suggest source migration during the 32 months of analyzed data. Such source position variability is expected following energetic eruptions that destructively altered the crater/vent morphology as confirmed by imagery obtained during regular overflights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mafic to intermediate shield volcanoes with multi-cubic-kilometer eruptive volumes are common in the Cascades Volcanic Arc, but little is known about their eruptive histories as either singular or sustained episodes, or the total time required for their construction. Paleomagnetic data were collected from the lava flows of Ash Creek Butte (17 sites) and Crater Mountain (14 sites) in northern California; both volcanoes are large shields with total volumes of ∼11 km3 each. Tightly clustered paleomagnetic results at both volcanoes, when coupled with analysis of geomagnetic secular variation, suggest that each edifice was built in only a few centuries, possibly in as little time as 50–90 years, indicating sub-century to century scale eruptive durations for two sizeable regional shield volcanoes within the Cascades Arc. These rapidly built shield volcanoes are substantially larger than typically defined monogenetic volcanoes, yet both are wholly formed within a single 'episode' at the limits of temporal resolution. Paleomagnetic methods provide a high-resolution tool that can be applied to understanding the tempo of regional volcanism in arcs. • Two 11 km3 shield volcanoes in northern California were erupted in under a few centuries • Paleomagnetic sampling and secular variation analysis tightly defines volcanic episodes • Effusion rate calculations support a brief volcanic episode at Crater Mountain [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A lengthy period of eruptive activity from the summit craters of Mt. Etna started in January 2011. It culminated in early December 2015 with a spectacular sequence of intense eruptive events involving all four summit craters (Voragine, Bocca Nuova, New Southeast Crater, and Northeast Crater). The activity consisted of high eruption columns, Strombolian explosions, lava flows and widespread ash falls that repeatedly interfered with air traffic. The most powerful episode occurred on 3 December 2015 from the Voragine. After three further potent episodes from the Voragine, activity shifted to the New Southeast Crater on 6 December 2015, where Strombolian activity and lava flow emission lasted for two days and were fed by the most primitive magma of the study period. Activity once more shifted to the Northeast Crater, where ash emission and weak Strombolian activity took place for several days. Sporadic ash emissions from all craters continued until 18 December, when all activity ceased. Although resembling the summit eruptions of 1998–1999, which also involved all four summit craters, this multifaceted eruptive sequence occurred in an exceptionally short time window of less than three days, unprecedented in the recent activity of Mt. Etna. It also produced important morphostructural changes of the summit area with the coalescence of Voragine and Bocca Nuova in a single large crater, the “Central Crater”, reproducing the morphological setting of the summit cone before the formation of Bocca Nuova in 1968. The December 2015 volcanic crisis was followed closely by the staff of the Etna Observatory to monitor the on-going activity and forecast its evolution, in accordance with protocols agreed with the Italian Civil Protection Department. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bea's Crater (Lunar Crater Volcanic Field, Nevada, USA) consists of two coalesced maar craters with diameters of ~ 440 m and ~ 1050 m, combined with a co-eruptive scoria cone that straddles the northeast rim of the larger crater. The two craters and the cone form an alignment that parallels many local and regional structures such as normal faults, and is interpreted to represent the orientation of the feeder dyke near the surface. The maar formed among a dense cluster of scoria cones; the cone-cluster topography resulted in crater rim that has a variable elevation. These older cones are composed of variably welded agglomerate and scoria with differing competence that subsequently affected the shape of Bea's Crater. Tephra ring deposits associated with phreatomagmatic maar-forming eruptions are rich in basaltic lithics derived from < 250 m depth, with variable contents of deeper-seated ignimbrite lithic clasts, consistent with ejection from relatively shallow explosions although a diatreme might extend to deeper levels beneath the maar. Interbedding of deposits on the northeastern cone and in the tephra ring record variations in the magmatic volatile driven and phreatomagmatic eruption styles in both space and time along a feeder dike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most volcano observatories classification of seismic events is made as a routine work to get some information on eruptive activities. Automating the classification with artificial intelligence (AI) techniques is a current issue but many AI techniques are not directly applicable to waveforms because they consist of individually different data lengths. This study develops a simple method in which the distance between waveforms with different lengths is evaluated by dynamic time warping and waveforms are classified by k-means clustering. In this method each of the classified groups is specified by a prototype, one of the waveforms that may represent the group best and good classifications are selected considering high generality and good fitting to the members. The seismic events of Sakurajima volcano are classified in this method and waveforms, spectra, time sequences and source locations are compared among groups for some good classifications. It is revealed that one of the groups consisting of tremor-like waveforms has an intimate connection with a magma ascent event beneath the active crater of the volcano. • Dynamic time warping and k-means clustering are applied to volcano-seismic events. • Applicable to waveforms with mutually different numbers of data points • Each cluster corresponds to volcano-tectonic, long-period and volcanic tremor. • Automatic waveform classification is effective to evaluate volcanic activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lake Rotomahana is a crater lake in the Okataina Volcanic Centre (New Zealand) that was significantly modified by the 1886 Tarawera Rift eruption. The lake is host to numerous sublacustrine hydrothermal vents. Water column studies were conducted in 2011 and 2014 along with sampling of lake shore hot springs and crater lakes in Waimangu Valley to complement magnetic, seismic, bathymetric and heat flux surveys. Helium concentrations below 50 m depth are higher in 2014 compared to 2011 and represent some of the highest concentrations measured, at 6 × 10 − 7 ccSTP/g, with an end-member 3 He/ 4 He value of 7.1 R A . The high concentrations of helium, when coupled with pH anomalies due to high dissolved CO 2 content, suggest the dominant chemical input to the lake is derived from magmatic degassing of an underlying magma. The lake shore hot spring waters show differences in source temperatures using a Na–K geothermometer, with inferred reservoir temperatures ranging between 197 and 232 °C. Water δ 18 O and δD values show isotopic enrichment due to evaporation of a steam heated pool with samples from nearby Waimangu Valley having the greatest enrichment. Results from this study confirm both pre-1886 eruption hydrothermal sites and newly created post-eruption sites are both still active. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We herein propose a three-pressure-source model for ground inflation with highly eruptive activity at the Showa crater of Sakurajima volcano, Japan. We applied a model of stacked spherical sources to continuous combined geodetic data from a global navigation satellite system, tilt and strainmeters. The data were recorded during ground inflation throughout an eruptive episode that began in October 2011 and ended in March 2012. Using a genetic algorithm, we obtained the locations and volumes of three sources. A pressure source analysis of ground inflation during the period from October 2011 to March 2012 revealed inflation sources to be located at a depth of 9.6 km beneath Aira caldera (A-source) and 3.3 km beneath Kita-dake (K-source), and a shallow deflation source is located at a depth of 0.7 km beneath Minami-dake (M-source). The A-source corresponds to the main magma reservoir at a depth of 10 km beneath the Aira caldera inferred by previous geophysical studies. The K-source is a-reservoir of Sakurajima volcano, where magma intrudes from the main magma reservoir beneath the Aira caldera during the first stage of eruptive activity. The M-source is the uppermost part of a conduit from the K-source to the summit and the Showa crater. Magma injection into the A-source started in mid-November 2011, instantly triggering the migration of increased volumes of magma from the A-source to the K-source. Approximately one month later, in mid-December 2011, an increased volume of magma started migrating from the K-source to the M-source and finally erupted at the surface. The accumulation rate for the A-source is comparable to the magma supply rate for the past 100 years (0.8 to 1.6 × 10 7 m 3 ). The three-pressure-source model was applied to inflation events before the 2011 event in order to reconstruct the magma migration process. Applying our source model to earlier activity phases, we found that injected magma from the A-source remained at the K-source and a small amount of magma began to move from the K-source to the M-source before the start of eruptive activity at the Showa crater in June 2006; furthermore, a large amount of magma was found to have moved toward the crater during this violent volcanic activity. We also found that the magma injection rate into the A-source sometimes reached the level of the average injection rate of the past 100 years during the ground inflation events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magmatic hydrothermal systems develop by the imposition of a magmatically derived heat flux upon a shallow groundwater system. As such their dynamics can be intermittently perturbed by changing conditions within the associated magmatic system. Understanding the nature of the coupling between the magmatic and groundwater systems is thus key to discriminating geophysical signals of magmatic unrest from purely hydrothermal ones. Using a series of numerical groundwater models run with TOUGH2, we simulate the coupled groundwater–magmatic system at Campi Flegrei caldera, with particular emphasis on the impact of permeability developed within local fault systems and the dynamics of the system during magmatic unrest. Simulation results suggest that faults can play an important role in controlling the dynamics of recharge and heat transport within the shallow hydrothermal reservoir. Results specifically highlight that contrasts in permeability between faults and surrounding rock impact local temperature gradients, with faults either acting as preferential routes for recharge or discharge of groundwater, depending on fault/caldera fill permeability contrast and the vertical extent of the fault. Simulations of magmatic unrest with a step-wise increase in basal heat flux suggest that periodic geophysical and chemical signals may stem from the interaction between the development of gas at depth and the recharge–discharge dynamics of the reservoir. These results highlight the potential for the dynamics of magmatic–hydrothermal systems to be significantly impacted by the presence and nature of local fault systems. Where dynamic groundwater systems are involved, it is thus important to understand the impact of such geological elements when interpreting monitoring data such as ground deformation, seismicity and gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composition of the volcanic gases discharged from the summit crater of Asama volcano has been monitored since 2004 by Multi-GAS and alkaline-filter techniques. The persistent degassing activity at Asama volcano is characterized by large variation of SO 2 flux. The CO 2 /SO 2 and H 2 O/SO 2 ratios did not show clear variation irrespective of the SO 2 flux variation and a few eruptions that occurred during active degassing periods. The estimated ratios have large uncertainty due to variable contribution of the different fumaroles in the summit crater to the volcanic plume and lack of a systematic variation can be due to the large uncertainty. The SO 2 /Cl ratio showed a systematic decrease after the eruption to the inactive period, suggesting that degassing pressure did not significantly increase after the eruption. Low-pressure degassing along with the continuous and intensive gas discharge suggests that the degassing is due to conduit magma convection. The apparently stable CO 2 /SO 2 ratios imply a lack of significant volatile differentiation in the magma reservoir, such as CO 2 -rich bubble accumulation. The large variation of the SO 2 flux along with stable gas composition implies that the large changes in magma convection rate are caused by changes in the radius of the convecting magma conduit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After 3 years of mild gases emissions, the Ubinas volcano entered in a new eruptive phase on September 2nd, 2013. The MIROVA system (a space-based volcanic hot-spot detection system), allowed us to detect in near real time the thermal emissions associated with the eruption and provided early evidence of magma extrusion within the deep summit crater. By combining IR data with plume height, sulfur emissions, hot spring temperatures and seismic activity, we interpret the thermal output detected over Ubinas in terms of extrusion rates associated to the eruption. We suggest that the 2013–2014 eruptive crisis can be subdivided into three main phases: ( i ) shallow magma intrusion inside the edifice, (ii) extrusion and growing of a lava plug at the bottom of the summit crater coupled with increasing explosive activity and finally, (iii) disruption of the lava plug and gradual decline of the explosive activity. The occurrence of the 8.2 Mw Iquique (Chile) earthquake (365 km away from Ubinas) on April 1st, 2014, may have perturbed most of the analyzed parameters, suggesting a prompt interaction with the ongoing volcanic activity. In particular, the analysis of thermal and seismic datasets shows that the earthquake may have promoted the most intense thermal and explosive phase that culminated in a major explosion on April 19th, 2014. These results reveal the efficiency of space-based thermal observations in detecting the extrusion of hot magma within deep volcanic craters and in tracking its evolution. We emphasize that, in combination with other geophysical and geochemical datasets, MIROVA is an essential tool for monitoring remote volcanoes with rather difficult accessibility, like those of the Andes that reach remarkably high altitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seismic signatures, recorded during transition from passive degassing to slow growth of a new lava dome in January–February 2016 at Volcán de Colima, gave us the information allowing reconstruct this process. The study is based on seismic data collected by the seismic network of Colima University (RESCO). Processing of seismic signals was performed using the unfiltered records of vertical component of digital broadband station EZ5 situated at a distance of 4 km from the crater. Two types of seismic signals, with explosions followed by pyroclastic flows and incandescent rockfalls (PFIRs) (type 1) and without PFIRs (type 2), define the vent-clearing and a dome growing processes. Totally were selected 154 seismic signals which represented these two types of waveforms. Events of type 1 dominated during January and the first days of February. Events of type 2 began to appear actively beginning from 4 to 6 February. The process, generating Vulcanian explosions and corresponding seismic signals, is considered to follow two-stage conceptual model which consists of the ascent of fragmented magma to the surface (stage 1), and a subsequent explosion (stage 2). Explosive waveforms of the events of both types demonstrated the similarity in the range of seismic energy of the explosive phases and their spectral frequency. Similarity in distributions of durations of the phases, corresponding to the depths of initial ascent of fragmented magma to the surface before explosion, indicated the generation of both types of explosions at the same fragmentation zone within the conduit. Existence of two-phase and three-phase explosive waveforms showed the complex collection of the magma bubbles within fragmentation zone. It was noted a tendency of decreasing of the spectral amplitudes of PFIR signals in time during the period of study, which illustrated the development of the vent-clearing process and defined the period of a birth of new lava dome in the crater of volcano. Initial growth of a new lava dome may be considered within the time interval from 4 to 6 to 24 February, during a break in a vent-clearing process. The full filling of the crater with magma continued for about 8 months. • Seismic signals, produced by explosions during two months of transition from passive degassing to the lava dome growth were analyzed. • Two types of seismic signals, with explosions followed by PFIRs (type 1) and without PFIRs (type 2) were recorded. • Type 1 events were associated with vent-clearing process before the lava dome growth. • Waveforms of both types of events demonstrated the similarity in the range of seismic energy of the main phases and their spectral frequency. • Tendency of decreasing of the spectral amplitudes of PFIR signals of the events of type 1 during the total period of study was noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silica-rich coatings of up to 660 μm thickness were found on the juvenile volcanic lapilli and blocks of the 1783 CE pyroclastic flow deposits 1.9–3.6 km northeast of the Maekake crater of Asama volcano in Central Japan. These coatings are composed of fine-grained volcanic ash particles with silica-rich cement. Raman spectroscopic measurements revealed that the interstitial silica-rich phase is hydrous amorphous silica and is considered to be a reaction product of ash particles with acidic volcanic rain and fog like volcanic smog (vog) as it has been recorded in Hawaii. The formation of amorphous silica without jarosite and the preferential alteration of plagioclase compared with pyroxene indicate that the reaction occurred with a sulfuric acid solution of pH < ~3. The porous structure and large surface area of the ash layer would have been favorable for the dissolution of sintered volcanic ash and the precipitation of amorphous silica. The thickness of the coating and degree of alteration in the plagioclase phenocrysts adjacent to the coating tend to decrease with increasing distance from the volcanic crater, which is consistent with the absence of fumarolic areas in the flank. The Asama-Maekake volcano has repeated Vulcanian and phreatic eruptions since 1783 CE, especially in the first half of the 20th century. The amorphous silica coating recognized in this study is assumed to have formed mainly during this period, which can thus be an indicator of the acidity and distribution of past acidic volcanic rain and fog. • Silica-rich coating on flank deposits of the 1783 CE eruption at Asama volcano • The coating is composed of ash particles and amorphous silica cement • The acidity of the reactant solution was constrained to be pH < ~3 • Sulfuric acidic volcanic rain and fog reached at least 3.5 km from the crater • The coating formed after 1783 CE, possibly in the first half of the 20th century [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The morphologies of craters on planetary surfaces reveal clues about the geologic mechanisms by which they originate and subsequently evolve, as well as the materials and physical variables inherent to the environment in which they formed. We carried out a quantitative multivariate analysis of shape descriptors derived from the outlines of craters formed by volcanic processes on Mars, Io, and Earth and by impact cratering on the Moon using elliptic Fourier analysis (EFA) and the Zahn-Roskies (Z -R) shape function. Canonical variate analysis (CVA) was used to construct a statistical model of differences between the crater groups to classify craters produced by various volcanic and impact processes. The classification model from canonical variate analysis of EFA shape descriptors yielded a 90% rate of success for the assignment of group membership among 406 examined craters. It correctly classified 138 of 154 (90%) ionian paterae,154 of 155 (99%) lunar impact craters, 31 of 35 (89%) terrestrial basaltic shield calderas, 32 of 38 (84%) terrestrial ash-flow calderas, and 12 of 24 (50%) martian basaltic shield calderas. The classification model from canonical variate analysis of Z -R shape function descriptors classified 84% of the total population of the examined craters correctly. The analysis correctly classified 96% of ionian paterae, 100% lunar impact craters, 51% terrestrial basaltic shield calderas, and 63% martian calderas, but only 16% of the terrestrial ash-flow calderas were correctly classified. Canonical variate analysis of EFA and Z -R results shows that the shapes of ash-flow calderas and paterae on Io differ the least of all groups included in this study, and basaltic shield calderas and martian calderas analyzed together also have few differences. The Z -R model successfully classifies more ionian patera and impact craters than the EFA classification model but performs poorly at classifying the other crater groups. This result shows that the descriptors convey different shape information. The Z -R model is robust in its ability to classify end-member differences in complexity while the EFA model is robust in its ability to reliably classify among more groups. These differences and similarities in shape confirm previously understood commonalities related to the origin and evolution of various types of craters. In general, basalt shield calderas on Earth and Mars are morphologically similar and are thought to have similar origins; this study confirms that the 2-D shapes of their craters are quantitatively correlated. Similarities have been noted between terrestrial ash-flow calderas and paterae on Io, principally in their large sizes, shallow magma chambers and complex evolution; this study confirms their shapes are also similar. Impact craters and ionian paterae are most dissimilar, as are their evolutions. This study demonstrates rigorous landform shape analysis can greatly increase our understanding of the diversity in craters and the processes involved in their formation. • Adopts methods of outline-based shape analysis from paleontology and evolutionary biology to planetary craters. • Methods can successfully distinguish planetary craters formed by different processes. • Patera on Io most similar in shape to terrestrial ash-flow calderas. • Potential evidence for impact craters on Io. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shallow, implosive non-double-couple (NDC) earthquakes have been detected beneath Unzen Volcano, Japan, by a routinely operated seismometer network. Here, we analyze the waveforms from 14 temporary seismic stations around Mt. Fugen (Fugendake) and Heisei-Shinzan Lava Dome, which formed during the 1990–1995 eruptions, to further investigate this shallow seismicity. We also estimate the subsurface electrical resistivity structure using broadband magnetotelluric observations and investigate its relationship to the shallow seismicity. We find that (1) implosive NDC earthquakes occur at the craters that were active during the 1990–1991 eruptions, which are currently buried by the approximately 200-m-thick Heisei-Shinzan Lava Dome; (2) the detected NDC earthquakes generally possess downward P-wave arrivals, although upward P-wave arrivals are observed at a few seismic stations; (3) the tensile axes of the NDC earthquakes show various slip directions; (4) repeated NDC earthquakes are in some cases detected within 20 s of the initial event; and (5) a high-resistivity zone exists beneath the NDC earthquakes. We conclude that the implosive NDC earthquakes were generated by the collapse of small, randomly oriented, vapor-filled voids at the two buried craters, with active volcanic conduits still present beneath these craters. The shallow DC earthquakes consist of two clusters that are located 2–3 km below the NDC earthquakes. The focal mechanisms of the shallower cluster (approximately 2 km depth) indicate various fault mechanism, whereas those of the deeper cluster (approximately 3 km depth) indicate strike-slip faulting. The top of the shallower cluster corresponds to the base of the conductive zone, which suggests that the DC earthquakes in the shallower cluster are generated in a zone of high pore pressure that is capped by a hydrothermally altered clay layer. • Implosive non-double-couple (NDC) earthquakes occur at buried volcanic craters. • A high-resistivity zone exists beneath the NDC earthquakes. • NDC earthquakes are generated by void collapse above active volcanic conduits. • DC earthquakes occur 2–3 km beneath the NDC earthquakes. • High-pore-pressure zone capped by a clay layer generates shallower DC earthquakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The 2.1 kyr Blue Dragon lava flow is one of the largest Holocene basaltic flows in the contiguous U.S. (280 km2/3.4 km3). • Satellite imagery shows the flow is divided into five large sub-areas deposited at different times during the eruption. • Major and trace elements and Pb isotopes show the lava composition changed over the course of the eruption. • The compositional data are consistent eruption of the Blue Dragon flow from a zoned magma chamber. • The changes in composition are consistent with changing magnitudes of fractional crystallization and crustal assimilation. The Blue Dragon lava flow in southern Idaho is one of the largest Holocene basaltic flows in the contiguous U.S. Multispectral remote sensing and field mapping of the flow have revealed its 280 km2 surface is divided into five large sub-areas with different spectral reflectance and morphology that correspond with distinct periods of the eruption. The flow grew outward from its source fissures primarily via a complex system of lava tubes, and stratigraphic relations at the boundaries of the mapped sub-areas provide temporal information about their order of emplacement. This offers a unique opportunity to reconstruct chemical and mineralogical changes in the source magmas as the eruption progressed. In this first comprehensive study of the compositional diversity of the Blue Dragon flow, geochemical data from 28 rock samples show that over the course of the eruption the lavas became progressively more primitive and depleted in incompatible trace elements, and Pb isotopes show subtle increases. These observations are best explained by eruption from a zoned magma source due to variable assimilation-fractional crystallization (AFC), with the initial eruption of more evolved and enriched magmas that may have been residual from the previous eruption, followed by progressively higher proportions of a more primitive and depleted component from deeper in the system. Differences in lava surface color and morphology among the five mapped eruptive phases may indicate changes in eruptive temperature, flow rate, or both as the Blue Dragon eruption progressed. The results support a growing body of evidence that systematic studies of geochemical variations in monogenetic and short-duration lava flows can reveal the relative influence of processes that affect single batches of magma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basaltic volcanoes produce a range of eruptive styles, from Strombolian to low-intensity fire fountaining to, much more rarely, highly explosive Plinian eruptions. Although the hazards posed by highly explosive eruptions are considerable, controlling mechanisms remain unclear, and thus improving our understanding of such mechanisms is an important research objective. To elucidate these mechanisms, we investigate the magma ascent dynamics of basaltic systems using a 1D numerical conduit model. We find that variations in magmatic pressure at depth play a key role in controlling modelled eruption characteristics. Our most significant result is that a decrease in pressure at depth, consistent with the emptying of a magma chamber, results in enhanced volatile exsolution and in deepening fragmentation depth. The corresponding decrease in conduit pressure ultimately produces a collapse of the conduit walls. This type of collapse may be a key mechanism responsible for the cessation of individual explosive eruptions, a notion previously explored for silicic eruptions, but never before for basaltic systems. Using previously published field and sample analysis to constrain model parameters, we simulate scenarios consistent with sub-Plinian eruptions, similar to those at Sunset Crater volcano in ~1085 CE in terms of mass eruption rates and duration. By combining these analyses with a chamber-emptying model, we constrain the size of the magma chamber at Sunset Crater to be on the order of tens of km3. During the 1085 CE Sunset Crater eruption, there were three main sub-Plinian events that erupted between 0.12 and 0.33 km3 of tephra (non-DRE), indicating that ~1% of the total chamber volume was erupted during each sub-Plinian pulse. • We reproduce a sub-Plinian eruption consistent with that occurred at Sunset Crater. • A decrease in pressure at depth results in a deepening fragmentation depth. • The decrease in conduit pressure ultimately produces the collapse of conduit walls. • We constrain the size of the magma storage zone at Sunset Crater to be ~10 km3. • We infer that during Sunset Crater eruption ~1% of the chamber volume was erupted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]